Total Visit Duration Research Articles

Virtual addressing reality: Development of a virtual social work program to address health-related social needs.

405 Background: Assessment of Health-Related Social Needs (HRSNs) has become an integral part of understanding barriers to care and improving patients’ lives and experiences as they receive cancer care. Increased assessment, however, can result in a raised awareness of unmet needs in oncology patient populations. This tends to highlight gaps in services and necessitate additional staff to attend to these needs. Addressing HRSNs can be facilitated with lay navigators (non-licensed staff), licensed staff, clinical staff, and other members of a multi-disciplinary team. Actions can include, but are not limited to, identification of practical concerns, referrals to community-based organizations (CBOs), referral to the clinical team, or further escalation to a licensed clinical social worker (LCSW). Methods: The National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Distress Thermometer screening tool was implemented in July 2023 where patients are screened every 3 months in a community oncology setting. A workflow was established where a clinic staff would administer the screening tool and enter the details of the screening into the EHR system. Based on established criteria, the patient would be referred to the social work team via electronic referral. Due to an increase in screening and subsequent referrals, a virtual team of (5) social workers called Patient Resource Coordinators (PRCs) was established in December 2023 to address the practical concerns and facilitate the coordination of resources based on identified needs. After the team was established, non-urgent referrals were then assigned to a PRC. The PRC could refer to an on-site LMSW/LCSW for higher level of acuity assessment, like crisis support or positive PHQ-9 scores. Results: See Table. Conclusions: The virtual PRC team is able to manage ~55% of referrals made to a social worker based on results from an HRSN screening tool. This has allowed the onsite LMSWs/LCSWs to work at the top of their license and enabled patients to receive support with care coordination and connection to resources. Over time, the referrals managed by the virtual team has increased and their connections to patients have grown. In the future, the PRC team aims to add additional LCSW services to assist patients with higher acuity needs. This will broaden the scope of services available to the patients to address their health-related social needs in a timely manner. PRC Activity Dec ’23 Jan ‘24 Feb ‘24 Mar ’24 Apr ‘24 May ’24 (*May to date at time of submission) # of Referrals Received via EHR 110 542 610 586 1216 570 # of Referrals Assigned to PRC 45 245 299 315 660 312 % of Referrals Assigned to PRC 41% 45% 49% 54% 54% 55% *Secondary Referral to SW 8 9 20 4 # of calls attempted 102 479 536 577 959 448 # of patients reached 38 180 217 270 413 277 % of patients reached 37% 38% 40% 47% 43% 62% # of practical concerns identified 31 131 426 430 742 349 Total Visit Duration (in hrs.) 36hrs 181hrs 348hrs 450hrs 836hrs 485hrs

Economic Evaluation of Remote Monitoring for Implantable Cardiac Devices: Evidence from a Remote-Care Study.

The adoption of remote monitoring (RM) is especially relevant for patients with implantable cardiac devices due to their high risk of hospitalization and the need for frequent outpatient visits. Though RM can help with early detection of cardiac episodes, it may also increase the number of tasks healthcare providers engage in to monitor patients' health. The adoption of RM may increase healthcare providers' workloads, potentially impacting the quality of care and increasing the risk of clinician-provider burnout. Little is known about the link between RM adoption and changes in healthcare providers' workloads. Using data from a non-randomized clinical trial conducted in 2021-2022 at a University Hospital in Korea, we examined the relationship between RM adoption and changes in patient time savings and healthcare providers' workloads. The clinical trial included patients with a cardiac implantable electronic device compatible with the Biotronik Home Monitoring System. For patients, RM was associated with a 41-minute decrease in total visit duration, attributed to reductions in both wait time (37 minutes; P<0.001) and total examination time (3.7 minutes; P=0.137). For healthcare providers, RM was linked to an increase in overall workload by 107.9 minutes per patient. The increase was primarily due to managing RM alerts (91.8 minutes) and preparing monthly patient reports (19.9 minutes). Our findings suggest that RM was associated with a decrease of 1540 KRW (44%) in average cost of care per minute. RM is associated with time-saving patient benefits and increased healthcare providers' workloads. Even though this was a single-center study with a small number of patients, our research highlights the importance of carefully examining changes in healthcare staff workloads linked to the adoption of RM within the national health insurance system.

Ecological influences and visual attention to infant phenotypes.

In humans, the allocation of resources, such as parental care and attention, is vital to offspring survival. Life history strategies are influenced by cues in the environment, particularly those that signal the availability of resources. What has yet to be determined is how individuals allocate resources to infants as a function of perceived ecological harshness and life history strategy. In the current research we hypothesized that perceived ecology would influence infant ratings (Study 1), and that visual attention to infant phenotypes would be associated with life history strategies (Study 2). Study 1 investigated the effect of ecological conditions (control vs. harsh) on preferences to infant phenotypes (i.e., underweight, average weight, overweight). Participants (N = 246) were less likely to rate infants favorably under a harsh ecological condition. Study 2 investigated visual perception in processing infant images. Using an eye-tracking task, participants (N = 239) viewed images of infants while their eye movements were recorded. Participants displayed an early attentional bias (i.e., first fixation duration) to the head of the infant and focused most of their visual attention to the torso of infants (i.e., total visit duration). The results of the both studies indicate that ecological factors play an important role in rating infants, and data from eye-tracking demonstrates that phenotypes influence the amount of attention given to infants.

Memory deficit in patients with cerebral small vessel disease: evidence from eye tracking technology.

Cerebral small vessel disease is the one of the most prevalent causes of vascular cognitive impairment. We aimed to find objective and process-based indicators related to memory function to assist in the detection of memory impairment in patients with cerebral small vessel disease. Thirty-nine cerebral small vessel disease patients and 22 healthy controls were invited to complete neurological examinations, neuropsychological assessments, and eye tracking tasks. Eye tracking indicators were recorded and analyzed in combination with imaging features. The cerebral small vessel disease patients scored lower on traditional memory task and performed worse on eye tracking memory task performance compared to the healthy controls. The cerebral small vessel disease patients exhibited longer visit duration and more visit count within areas of interest and targets and decreased percentage value of total visit duration on target images to total visit duration on areas of interest during decoding stage among all levels. Our results demonstrated the cerebral small vessel disease patients performed worse in memory scale and eye tracking memory task, potentially due to their heightened attentional allocation to nontarget images during the retrieval stage. The eye tracking memory task could provide process-based indicators to be a beneficial complement to memory assessment and new insights into mechanism of memory impairment in cerebral small vessel disease patients.

Exploring the impact of cultural context on eye-tracking studies of architectural monuments in selected European cities: Sustainable heritage management

Sustainable management of architectural heritage requires conducting an inclusive diagnosis of users' opinions, considering both residents and tourists as the recipients of urban space. Given the cultural diversity within these groups, proposing the use of eye-trackers (ET) as an alternative to traditional public consultation prompts the need to assess the method's advantages and disadvantages. It remains uncertain whether individuals from different countries look at historical architecture and its transformations similarly. The uniqueness of this subject matter prevents drawing parallels from experiences in other domains. Moreover, prior research provides conflicting conclusions and may include methodological errors. This uncertainty impedes the adoption of ET as an administrative and legal tool. To address this gap, 320 volunteers, encompassing both Poles and foreigners, were invited. Qualification involved optometric tests and questionnaires. Subsequently, a portion of the participants underwent the experiment using ET while viewing visual stimuli on a monitor. The experiment featured twelve monuments, with six originating from Wrocław and six from another major European city (Paris, Rome, London, Berlin, Dresden, Dortmund). The study focused on the nature and pattern of fixations made on original photographs and their modified versions. Analyzing the collected ET data for 24 stimuli, two primary aspects were explored. First, whether both groups, irrespective of their familiarity with the object or the city of residence, looked at the original photographs in the same manner. Second, it was investigated whether participants cultural background significantly influenced observers' reactions to visual changes in the buildings. Only 8 out of 160 comparisons demonstrated statistically significant deviations. Other results, including visitor numbers, fixation counts, average fixation duration, total visit duration, and time to first fixation, exhibited similarity across the board.

A CHECKLIST-BASED INTERVENTION TO SUPPORT FAMILY CAREGIVERS IN PRIMARY CARE

Abstract Family caregivers commonly accompany older adults to their routine medical visits, but caregivers’ own needs and concerns are not systematically identified or addressed in clinical practice. Collaborative Healthcare Encounters with Caregivers (CHEC) is a checklist-based intervention that uses a prioritization approach to help caregivers efficiently identify and communicate their most salient concerns to primary care providers. This presentation will report findings from a pilot randomized controlled trial of N=37 patient-caregiver dyads who were randomized to CHEC (N=21) or usual care (n=16). The goals of the pilot trial were to evaluate CHEC’s impact on medical visit duration and communication (using time-stamped audio-recordings and a structured coding system) and caregivers’ perceptions of CHEC’s utility (using questionnaires and interviews). Total visit duration was comparable across treatment groups (CHEC: 29.3 minutes vs. UC: 32.8 minutes; p=0.55), but a greater proportion of the visit time was spent addressing caregivers’ concerns among CHEC group participants, as compared to usual care participants (25% vs. 6%; p&amp;lt;.001). In post-visit interviews, caregivers commented that CHEC was useful in helping them to prepare for the visit by thinking about their questions in advance and prompting providers to acknowledge their concerns. Findings from this study explicitly address the RAISE Act’s recommendation for integrating evidence-based caregiver assessment instruments into clinical care delivery (Outcome 2.2) and indicate CHEC’s potential as an efficient, clinically feasible intervention that can support greater inclusion of caregivers in primary care discussions.

Gaze and avoidant patterns of visual attention to aversive stimuli during fear habituation trial: A pilot eye tracking study

Previous studies have revealed that attentional bias toward aversive stimuli may play a causal role in the development and maintenance of anxiety disorders. This pilot study designed an experiment, using eye tracking, to capture gaze patterns individuals may display during a fear habituation trial. Three trials were conducted with twenty-eight subjects who reported aversion to insects. Pictures of cockroaches were used as aversive stimuli. The time proportion of the total visit duration and average visit duration toward aversive stimuli were analyzed using a mixed ANOVA, with three habituation trials and four self-report on fear level scores as within-participants factors. Across trials, the time proportion of total visit duration was relatively low when fear levels were high, and increased when fear levels decreased. Across trials, the average visit duration was short when fear levels were relatively high, and the average visit duration became relatively long as fear levels decreased. The results indicated that higher fear levels during exposure are likely to lead to attentional avoidance which might be a strategic effortful coping process (Eysenck, et al. 2007). This study is an crucial first step toward understanding the gaze patterns that fearful individuals may display during exposure trials. Using eye tracking technology, we objectively identified these gaze patterns and opened avenues to enhance the efficacy of exposure-based interventions tailored to address phobias.

304 Precision Weighing Technologies to Measure Real-Time Drinking Behavior, Body Mass, and Growth in Steers Managed Using Virtual Fencing Technology in Extensive Pastures

Abstract Attaining sustainability of livestock production and understanding environmental synergies requires in-depth knowledge of grazing animal growth and behavior. A pilot study (2021-22) was conducted at the South Dakota State University Cottonwood Field Station as part of a broader project to evaluate precision livestock technology and environmental synergies on native rangelands. Yearling Angus steers (n = 262) were fitted with virtual fencing collars (Vence), weighed on a traditional chute scale, and allocated to one of six native grass pastures equipped with individual weighing (SmartScale) scales at the water source. Each pasture was assigned either Rotational (RG) or Continuous (CG) grazing strategy and one of three stocking rates (Low, Medium, and High, 0.3, 0.42, and 0.7 AUMs, respectively) in a 2x3 factorial design. The data were downloaded, (Rcore Team, 2023), and spurious weights identified and removed using Robust Regression (hwts &amp;gt; 0.99, Parsons et al. 2023). Effects of stocking rate and grazing strategy were analyzed on water visits, time spent drinking, and growth using a linear mixed effects model to calculate effect sizes. Differences between BW and ADG calculated using the smart-scale vs. traditional chute weights were evaluated using a paired t-test. Steers visited the smart-scale 3.44 ± 2.79 visits per day, with significant effect of RG vs. CG strategies (3.65 ± 0.09 vs. 2.89 ± 0.10 visits per day respectively, P &amp;lt; 0.05). Total water visit duration averaged 5.04 ± 7.58 minutes per day, with most visits occurring between 0600 and 2000 hours and no observations occurring between 2000 and 0000 hours. RG managed steers exhibited significantly higher water visit duration (5.28 ± 0.308 vs 4.16 ± 0.317 minutes/day, P &amp;lt; 0.05) compared with CG managed steers. Smartscale measured weights were significantly heavier than chute weights at the beginning and end of the study period, (7.47 ± 24.54 and 9.77 ± 46.25 kg respectively, P &amp;lt; 0.05). No differences in overall ADG were found between smartscale and traditional chute weights(P &amp;gt; 0.58), however, significant temporal interactions occurred (P &amp;lt; 0.05), which demonstrates that ADG varied over the trial duration. This created significant discrepancies in predicted vs. actual stocking rates in heavy stocked pastures (0.84 AUM, P &amp;lt; 0.05), indicating pastures exceeded their target stocking rate. Overall, we found steers readily acclimated to smart-scale weighing systems, and creates a viable technology to monitor watering behavior, real-time body weight, and ADG in extensively managed cattle. Further, we showed RG vs CG grazing strategies significantly affect animal drinking behavior, while stocking rate resulted in inequalities between expected vs. actual assigned animal unit months. Precision livestock technologies offer a vital solution towards enhancing sustainable livestock management practices and improving nutrition and modeling in extensive rangeland systems.

Research on the correlation mechanism between eye-tracking data and aesthetic ratings in product aesthetic evaluation

It is an open question whether the results of human evaluations of product aesthetics can be reasonably predicted from eye-tracking data. In this paper, we investigate the correlation mechanism between eye-tracking data and product aesthetic ratings so that the eye-tracking data can form a scientific reference in product aesthetic evaluation to better guide product design. It is proven that the four chosen eye-tracking indices, including total fixation duration, fixation count, visit count and total visit duration, are significantly correlated with product aesthetic ratings, and it is possible to achieve objective quantification of product aesthetics. The correlation between eye-tracking data and product aesthetic ratings is analysed, and an evaluation model of the product aesthetic correlation mechanism is proposed based on eye-tracking data. Experimental results demonstrate that product aesthetic evaluation is not mysterious or unique and can be reasonably described through data analysis and mathematical algorithms. If the correlation mechanism between eye-tracking data and product aesthetics is well established, the scientific evaluation of product aesthetics can be easily achieved.

Correlation between Eye Movements and Asthenopia: A Prospective Observational Study.

Purpose: To analyze the correlation between eye movements and asthenopia so as to explore the possibility of using eye-tracking techniques for objective assessment of asthenopia. Methods: This prospective observational study used the computer visual syndrome questionnaire to assess the severity of asthenopia in 93 enrolled college students (age 20−30) who complained about asthenopia. Binocular accommodation and eye movements during the reading task were also examined. The correlations between questionnaire score and accommodation examination results and eye movement parameters were analyzed. Differences in eye movement parameters between the first and last reading paragraphs were compared. The trends in eye movement changes over time were observed. Results: About 81.7% of the subjects suffered from computer visual syndrome. Computer visual syndrome questionnaire total score was positively correlated with positive relative accommodation (p < 0.05). In the first reading paragraph, double vision was positively correlated with unknown saccades (all p < 0.05). Difficulty focusing at close range was positively correlated with total fixation duration, total visit duration, and reading speed (all p < 0.05). Feeling that sight was worsening was positively correlated with regressive saccades (p < 0.05). However, visual impairment symptoms were not significantly correlated with any accommodative function. In a total 20 min reading, significantly reduced eye movement parameters were: total fixation duration, fixation count, total visit duration, visit count, fixation duration mean, and reading speed (all p < 0.01). The eye movement parameters that were significantly increased were: visit duration mean and unknown saccades (all p < 0.001). Conclusion: Eye tracking could be used as an effective assessment for asthenopia. Among the various eye movement parameters, a decrease in fixation duration and counts may be one of the potential indicators related to asthenopia.

Association between visual attention to nutrition priming and subsequent beverage choice

This study used eye-tracking data to determine if attention to nutrition information before making purchasing decisions between beverages was associated with selecting a sugar-sweetened beverage and whether the updated Nutrition Facts Label (NFL) garnered more attention than the previous NFL. Participants were randomly assigned to view either the previous or updated NFL, and time to first fixation (TFF) and total visit duration (TVD) were collected while participants viewed NFLs for beverages without additional product details. TFF and TVD were collected for three areas of interest – sugar content, calorie content, and the entire NFL. After viewing nutrition information without product details, participants made non-hypothetical choices between beverages that varied by sugar and calorie content. Results show that without additional product information, the sugar content presented by the updated NFL was more salient and garnered more attention. Although, results about the influence of information salience and the attention given to information on subsequent beverage choices were mixed. Attention to nutrition information may outweigh salience when forming decisions. The updated NFL was more effective at priming individuals with a higher body mass index by influencing subsequent beverage choices.

Estimates of genetic parameters for feeding behavior traits and their associations with feed efficiency in Holstein cows.

Residual feed intake (RFI) is commonly used to measure feed efficiency but individual intake recording systems are needed. Feeding behavior may be used as an indicator trait for feed efficiency using less expensive precision livestock farming technologies. Our goal was to estimate genetic parameters for feeding behavior and the genetic correlations with feed efficiency in Holstein cows. Data consisted of 75,877 daily feeding behavior records of 1,328 mid-lactation Holstein cows in 31 experiments conducted from 2009 to 2020 with an automated intake recording system. Feeding behavior traits included number of feeder visits per day, number of meals per day, duration of each feeder visit, duration of each meal, total duration of feeder visits, intake per visit, intake per meal [kg of dry matter (DM)], feeding rate per visit, and feeding rate per meal (kg of DM per min). The meal criterion was estimated as 26.4 min, which means that any pair of feeder visits separated by less than 26.4 min were considered part of the same meal. The statistical model included lactation and days in milk as fixed effects, and experiment-treatment, animal, and permanent environment as random effects. Genetic parameters for feeding behavior traits were estimated using daily records and weekly averages. Estimates of heritability for daily feeding behavior traits ranged from 0.09 ± 0.02 (number of meals; mean ± standard error) to 0.23 ± 0.03 (feeding rate per meal), with repeatability estimates ranging from 0.23 ± 0.01 (number of meals) to 0.52 ± 0.02 (number of feeder visits). Estimates of heritability for weekly averages of feeding behavior traits ranged from 0.19 ± 0.04 (number of meals) to 0.32 ± 0.04 (feeding rate per visit), with repeatability estimates ranging from 0.46 ± 0.02 (duration of each meal) to 0.62 ± 0.02 (feeding rate per visit and per meal). Most of the feeding behavior measures were strongly genetically correlated, showing that with more visits or meals per day, cows spend less time in each feeder visit or meal with lower intake per visit or meal. Weekly averages for feeding behavior traits were analyzed jointly with RFI and its components. Number of meals was genetically correlated with milk energy (0.48), metabolic body weight (-0.27), and RFI (0.19). Duration of each feeder visit and meal were genetically correlated with milk energy (0.43 and 0.44, respectively). Total duration of feeder visits per day was genetically correlated with DM intake (0.29), milk energy (0.62), metabolic body weight (-0.37), and RFI (0.20). Intake per visit and meal were genetically correlated with DM intake (0.63 and 0.87), milk energy (0.47 and 0.69), metabolic body weight (0.47 and 0.68), and RFI (0.31 and 0.65). Feeding rate was genetically correlated with DM intake (0.69), metabolic body weight (0.67), RFI (0.47), and milk energy (0.21). We conclude that measures of feeding behavior could be useful indicators of dairy cow feed efficiency, and individual cows that eat at a slower rate may be more feed efficient.

Are Emoji Processed Like Words? An Eye-Tracking Study.

In this study, we investigate the processing of object-denoting emoji in sentences using eye tracking. We hypothesize that (a) such emoji are more difficult to process when used as word replacement; and (b) their processing is subject to ambiguity constraints similarly to what happens with words. We conduct two experiments in which participants have to read sentences in which an emoji either follows or replaces a word. Control stimuli not containing emoji are also tested. In the second experiment, the emoji are presented in two different disambiguating contexts. First fixation duration, total visit duration, and total revisit duration are modeled in the various conditions using linear mixed models. Both our hypotheses are supported. We observe longer total visit time for non-redundant emoji, and higher values for all three measures for ambiguous emoji. We conclude that lexical access may be more difficult for emoji especially when they are used as word replacements and their meaning is not immediately clear. Furthermore, we also conclude that non-redundant emoji are more difficult to integrate in the processing of the sentence than the equivalent words, or emoji used in a redundant way. In turn, our results indicate that emoji may not always be as immediate and easy to process for readers in spite of theirpopularity.

Looking at buildings or trees? Association of human nature relatedness with eye movements in outdoor space

This study explored how nature relatedness (NR) was linked with human eye movements in outdoor space. We created a 360-degree virtual reality scene that contained half urban setting of buildings and half nature area of trees, and recorded 112 participants' eye movements (total visit duration and total fixation duration ratio) during 1 min of free viewing. It was found that individuals’ NR score correlated with their eye movements on the area of interests (AOIs), i.e., total fixation duration ratio on Trees (r (110) = 0.341, p < .001). Further analyses of the correlations between three subscales of NR scale and eye-tracking data revealed that NR-Self was related to eye movements significantly, but not for NR-Perception and NR-Experience. The paired t-tests result showed that people with Low NR score spent more time looking at buildings than trees, while the High NR group did the opposite. For the medium NR group, no distinct eye movements difference between trees and buildings was detected. The outcomes shed light on the divergence of individual visual attention in a mix of natural and built environment. Our finding also determined the efficacy of NR scale with physical measurements of behavior.

Investigating EFL Test-Takers’ Engagement with Source Materials in Reading-to-Write: Evidence from Eye-Tracking

This study investigated how English as Foreign Language (EFL) test-takers were engaged with source materials while completing a reading-to-write task. 16 participants were eye-tracked throughout task completion. Two eye-tracking metrics were examined: total visit duration, which reports how long the participants looked at each part of the task; and individual visit duration, which calculates statistics such as the mean visit duration and max visit duration of the participants’ overall individual visits. Results showed that the participants spent over a quarter of their time in reading whilst reading-to-write. During task completion, they constantly switched their attention between reading source materials and writing, and they tended to adopt a more expeditious reading approach when engaging with the source text.

The processing of native advertising compared to banner advertising: an eye-tracking experiment

This paper aims to better understand the effect of visual attention on the processing of banner and native advertisements on Facebook and consequently on brand recognition and brand attitude. Using an eye-tracking experiment (N = 90), we show that a native advertisement attracts more and longer visual attention (i.e., total fixation duration, fixation count, and average visit duration) compared to a banner advertisement. Moreover, we show that longer visual attention (i.e., total fixation duration and average visit duration) increases persuasion knowledge and the recognition of an advertisement, which in turn leads to better brand recognition. Second, we show that neither conceptual persuasion knowledge nor critical processing mediates the effect of visual attention on brand attitude.

SUCCESSFUL INTERVENTIONS TO IMPROVE EFFICIENCY AND REDUCE PATIENT VISIT DURATION IN A RETINA PRACTICE.

To reduce the total clinic visit duration among retina providers in an academic ophthalmology department. All patient encounters across all providers in the department were analyzed to determine baseline clinic visit duration time, defined as the elapsed time between appointment time and checkout. To increase photography capacity, a major bottleneck identified through root cause analysis, four interventions were implemented: training ophthalmic technicians to perform fundus photography in addition to optical coherence tomographies, relocating photography equipment to be adjacent to examination rooms, procuring three additional Optos widefield retinal photography units, and shifting staff schedules to better align with that of the providers. These interventions were implemented in the clinics of two retina providers. The average baseline visit duration for all patients across all providers was 87 minutes (19,550 patient visits). The previous average visit duration was 80 minutes for Provider 1 (557 patient visits) and 81 minutes for Provider 2 (1,246 patient visits). In the 4 weeks after interventions were implemented, the average visit duration decreased to 60 minutes for Provider 1 and 57 minutes for Provider 2. A systematic approach and a multidisciplinary team resulted in targeted, cost-effective interventions that reduced total visit durations.

Predicting food choices based on eye-tracking data: Comparisons between real-life and virtual tasks

As eye-trackers become increasingly important in studies on consumer food choice, it is crucial to test the ecological validity of virtual eye-tracking tests. The present study aims to cross-examine eye-tracking data obtained from real-life versus virtual food choice tasks. Sixty-two healthy females participated in this study by attending two sessions, with virtual and real-life settings, respectively. Both sessions were constructed identically – with participants required to view eight common snack food items with different arrangements, while wearing mobile eye-trackers. To complete each task, the participants were asked to select three types of food for consumption. Analyses of summed dwell time (i.e., total visit duration – the summed latency of gaze visit on an ‘area of interest’ from entry to exit) were performed to assess food attention biases across test conditions, and between the selected and unselected food items. While the results revealed only minor differences in visual preferences between real-life and virtual settings, data from these two settings showed differential relationships to food choices. Eye-tracking data obtained in the virtual setting supported the notion that the selected food items were looked at longer (p < 0.05). However, the dwell time is shown inadequate to fully capture the more complex cognitive processes underpinning real-life food choices, with non-significant differences being reflected in dwell time for selected versus unselect foods. Overall, our study demonstrates inconsistent outcomes of eye-tracking food research in virtual versus real-life settings, highlighting the importance of accounting for environmental variation when interpreting eye-tracking data for food cues.

Effect of milk allowance on the suitability of automated behavioural and physiological measures as early disease indicators in calves

This study investigated the effect of milk allowance on the suitability of behavioural and physiological responses, individually and in combination, as early disease indicators. A total of 120 heifer calves were assigned into a 5 L/d or 10 L/d milk allowance treatment group. Daily health checks were conducted to determine when calves presented clinical signs of neonatal calf diarrhoea (NCD). Automated calf feeders recorded milk feeding behaviour, and infrared cameras automatically recorded eye and cheek temperatures. Accelerometers recorded lying behaviour, and water drinking behaviour was recorded using an automated water system and video observations. Respiration rate was recorded once per day by counting flank movements. Calves were used as their own controls, with data analysed relative to the day of clinical identification (d 0). Based on changes which occurred over the 6 days prior to clinical signs of disease (across d -6 to 0), typically, feeding behaviours only changed significantly for calves on the 10 L/d milk allowance with an increase in total (P < 0.001) and rewarded visits to the feeder (P = 0.013), and a decrease in milk consumption (P = 0.011). Infrared temperatures only changed significantly prior to clinical signs for calves on the 5 L/d milk allowance, with a decrease in eye (P = 0.013) and cheek (P = 0.006) temperatures. Regardless of milk allowance, lying time (P = 0.028, 5- L/d; P = 0.011, 10 L/d), number of lying bouts (P < 0.001, 5 L/d; P = 0.007, 10 L/d), and average bout duration (P < 0.001, 5 L/d; P = 0.002, 10 L/d), changed significantly prior to clinical signs. The only significant change in water drinking behaviour prior to clinical signs was an increase in total trough visit duration for calves on the 5 L/d milk allowance (P = 0.029). Respiration rate showed no significant change prior to clinical signs regardless of milk allowance. For calves on the 10 L/d and 5 L/d milk allowances, the most suitable indicator of disease was the total number of visits to the feeder (P < 0.001) and the number of lying bouts (P < 0.001), respectively. Regardless of milk allowance, combinations of feeding and lying behaviours, and additionally infrared temperatures in the case of calves on the 5 L/d milk allowance, provided the strongest composite indicators of disease. Overall, results suggest milk allowance can influence the suitability of behavioural and physiological responses as early disease indicators. Milk allowance should be considered when determining which measures will act as the optimum indicator/s when developing and implementing algorithms into automated on-farm systems for disease detection.

Esthetic perception of clear aligner therapy attachments using eye-tracking technology

The purpose of this research was to assess and compare esthetic perceptions of clear aligner therapy with attachments and esthetic brackets by measuring differences in eye fixations using eye-tracking technology. The sample involved 250 adult subjects. The subjects gave verbal consent, then viewed photographs showing 4 variations of orthodontic appliances: clear aligner control with minimal attachments, clear aligner with anterior and posterior attachments, esthetic brackets, and clear aligner with posterior attachments. Images were displayed for 6seconds each on a computer monitor. Location and time to first fixation, total fixation duration, and total visit count and duration for each type of appliance were measured. Subjects were then asked to complete an online survey. Participants spent the least amount of time looking at the photograph of the control, followed by those of the ceramic brackets, posterior attachments, and anterior and/or posterior attachments. The anterior and/or posterior image had the least number of visits but garnered the longest visit duration (1.32 visits averaging 0.74seconds per visit). This was followed by the images of the posterior attachments (1.40 visits, 0.70seconds per visit), ceramic brackets (1.43 visits, 0.65seconds per visit), and minimal attachments control (1.45 visits, 0.61seconds per visit). The hierarchy of most preferred appliances across all 250 respondents was as follows: minimal attachments control, ceramic brackets, posterior attachments, and anterior and/or posterior attachments. Overall, 88.4% of subjects would compromise appliance esthetics during treatment for a better outcome (n=221). Eye-tracking data show that time to the first fixation was negatively correlated with its survey ranking and that an increase in attachments led to an increase in total fixation duration. There is a general desire for clear aligners without attachments and ceramic brackets over clear aligners with multiple attachments. Survey data suggest that although respondents viewed appliance esthetics as highly important, nearly all would compromise appliance esthetics during treatment if it resulted in a better outcome.