Total Body Center Of Mass Research Articles

Generation of forward angular impulse with different initial conditions

Generation of angular impulse during foot contact is regulated by controlling the relative orientation between the total body center of mass (CoM) and the reaction force (RF) applied to the feet. Between-task differences in initial CoM horizontal momentum were hypothesized to alter how forward angular impulse was generated during two forward translating tasks. Five skilled athletes performed standing (SFS) and running (RFS) forward somersaulting dives. Sagittal plane kinematics and RFs were obtained during the take-off phase of both tasks. The initial CoM momentum differences resulted in significant differences in control of the CoM relative to the RF, RF generation mechanisms, and knee and hip net joint moments (NJMs). During the RFS, angular impulse was generated by positioning the feet anterior to the CoM at initial contact so that the RF passed posterior to the CoM throughout the take-off phase. During the SFS, angular impulse was generated by positioning the CoM anterior to the feet prior to the push interval so that the RF passed posterior to the CoM. Task-specific differences in segment kinematics and RF direction contributed to the redistribution of knee and hip NJMs. These results suggest that initial conditions influence strategies the nervous system uses to satisfy task objectives.

Regulation of Forward Angular Impulse in Tasks With Backward Translation.

Studying how elite athletes satisfy multiple mechanical objectives when initiating well-practiced, goal-directed tasks provides insights into the control and dynamics of whole-body movements. This study investigated the coordination of multiple body segments and the reaction force (RF) generated during foot contact when regulating forward angular impulse in backward translating tasks. Six highly skilled divers performed inward somersaults (upward and backward jump with forward rotation) and inward timers (upward and backward jump without rotation) from a stationary platform. Sagittal plane kinematics and RFs were recorded simultaneously during the takeoff phase. Regulation of the forward angular impulse was achieved by redirecting the RF about the total body center of mass. Significantly more backward-directed RF was observed during the first and second peak horizontal RF of the inward somersaults than the inward timers. Modulation of the horizontal RF altered the RF direction about the center of mass and the lower-extremity segments. Backward leg and forward trunk orientation and a set of relatively large knee extensor and small hip flexor net joint moments were required for forward angular impulse generation. Understanding how the forward angular impulse is regulated in trained individuals provides insights for clinicians to consider when exploring interventions related to fall prevention.

Center Of Pressure Better Approximates Body Center Of Mass Movement Than Either The Thorax Or Pelvis During Firm Surface Balance Error Scoring System Testing.

Recently, mobile devices held/secured to the thorax or pelvis have been explored as methods to add sensitivity to the Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) during concussion evaluations. The validity of using movement of these locations to estimate sway during the BESS stances remains unknown. PURPOSE: To determine differences and relationships in postural sway estimated from movement of the pelvis, thorax, and center of pressure (CP) to total body center of mass (TBCM) movement during firm surface double leg (DL), single leg (SL), and tandem (TA) stances. METHODS: Sixteen healthy, young adults (9 men, 7 women, 21.2±2.1yrs) performed three DL, SL, and TA trials according to the BESS protocol, while kinematics of 13 body segments and CP data were concurrently recorded. Kinematic data were subsequently used to determine the TBCM, superior thorax, and pelvis locations during each trial. The root mean square (RMS) of the three kinematic and CP locations during time periods void of compensatory events were computed for each trial. Two factor analysis of variance (measure by stance) and correlational analysis of each measure with TBCM were conducted on the average across the three trials. RESULTS: Post hoc comparisons of a significant interaction (P<.001) demonstrated thorax RMS as significantly higher than TBCM during DL (P=.049, d=.83) and TA (P=.031, d=.81) stances, and significantly higher than all other measures during SL stance (P=.001 - .004, d=1.63 - 1.83). The pelvis was significantly higher than TBCM during TA (P=.002 d=1.08). While all relationships with TBCM RMS were statistically significant (P<.05), the strongest relationships existed for CP (r=.897 to.969), while the weakest existed for thorax (r=.683 - .891). CONCLUSIONS: Forceplate derived CP best approximated TBCM movement during each firm surface stance. The significantly higher values and weaker relationships with TBCM suggest the thorax may not be an optimal mobile device location for enhancing BESS testing. Future research will consider the three BESS stances on foam surfaces.

Simulating the restoration of standing balance at leaning postures with functional neuromuscular stimulation following spinal cord injury.

In this simulation study, we present and examine methods to develop a feedback controller for a neuroprosthesis that restores forward and side leaning function during standing following complete thoracic-level spinal cord injury. Achieving leaning postures away from erect stance with functional neuromuscular stimulation (FNS) would allow users to extend their reaching capabilities. Utilizing a 3-D computer model of human stance, an FNS control system based on total-body center of mass (CoM) kinematics (position, acceleration) is developed and tested in simulation. CoM kinematics drive an artificial neural network to modulate muscle excitations and reduce the upper extremity loading, presumably against a walker or similar support surface, required to resist the effects of postural perturbations. Furthermore, a novel method to robustly estimate the feedback kinematics for standing applications is also presented while assuming 3-D accelerometer signals at locations consistent with a proposed implantable networked neuroprosthesis system. For shifting and balance at leaning postures, respectively, center of mass position and acceleration could be approximated to within 20% of the maximum value, with strong correlations (R > 0.9) between values estimated by the proposed method and the true values derived from model dynamics. When utilizing the estimated feedback kinematics for FNS control, standing performance in terms of maximum upper extremity loading was still significantly reduced (p < 0.001) compared to conventionally applying constant and maximal stimulation. In the future, these simulation-based methods will be employed to develop experimental approaches for restoring leaning standing function by FNS.

Models of Postural Control: Shared Variance in Joint and COM Motions.

This paper investigated the organization of the postural control system in human upright stance. To this aim the shared variance between joint and 3D total body center of mass (COM) motions was analyzed using multivariate canonical correlation analysis (CCA). The CCA was performed as a function of established models of postural control that varied in their joint degrees of freedom (DOF), namely, an inverted pendulum ankle model (2DOF), ankle-hip model (4DOF), ankle-knee-hip model (5DOF), and ankle-knee-hip-neck model (7DOF). Healthy young adults performed various postural tasks (two-leg and one-leg quiet stances, voluntary AP and ML sway) on a foam and rigid surface of support. Based on CCA model selection procedures, the amount of shared variance between joint and 3D COM motions and the cross-loading patterns we provide direct evidence of the contribution of multi-DOF postural control mechanisms to human balance. The direct model fitting of CCA showed that incrementing the DOFs in the model through to 7DOF was associated with progressively enhanced shared variance with COM motion. In the 7DOF model, the first canonical function revealed more active involvement of all joints during more challenging one leg stances and dynamic posture tasks. Furthermore, the shared variance was enhanced during the dynamic posture conditions, consistent with a reduction of dimension. This set of outcomes shows directly the degeneracy of multivariate joint regulation in postural control that is influenced by stance and surface of support conditions.

Evaluation of the Microsoft Kinect as a clinical assessment tool of body sway

Total body center of mass (TBCM) is a useful kinematic measurement of body sway. However, expensive equipment and high technical requirement limit the use of motion capture systems in large-scale clinical settings. Center of pressure (CP) measurement obtained from force plates cannot accurately represent TBCM during large body sway movement. Microsoft Kinect is a rapidly developing, inexpensive, and portable posturographic device, which provides objective and quantitative measurement of TBCM sway. The purpose of this study was to evaluate Kinect as a clinical assessment tool for TBCM sway measurement. The performance of the Kinect system was compared with a Vicon motion capture system and a force plate. Ten healthy male subjects performed four upright quiet standing tasks: (1) eyes open (EOn), (2) eyes closed (ECn), (3) eyes open standing on foam (EOf), and (4) eyes closed standing on foam (ECf). Our results revealed that the Kinect system produced highly correlated measurement of TBCM sway (mean RMSE=4.38 mm; mean CORR=0.94 in Kinect–Vicon comparison), as well as comparable intra-session reliability to Vicon. However, the Kinect device consistently overestimated the 95% CL of sway by about 3mm. This offset could be due to the limited accuracy, resolution, and sensitivity of the Kinect sensors. The Kinect device was more accurate in the medial–lateral than in the anterior–posterior direction, and performed better than the force plate in more challenging balance tasks, such as (ECf) with larger TBCM sway. Overall, Kinect is a cost-effective alternative to a motion capture and force plate system for clinical assessment of TBCM sway.

Clinician's Commentary on Crockett et al.

Clinician's Commentary on Crockett et al.

Age-related changes in mediolateral dynamic stability control during volitional stepping

The control of mediolateral dynamic stability during stepping can be particularly challenging for older adults and appears to be related to falls and hip fracture. The specific mechanisms or control challenges that lead to mediolateral instability, however, are not fully understood. This work focussed on the restabilisation phase of volitional forward stepping, subsequent to foot contact, which we believe to be a principal determinant of mediolateral dynamic stability. Twenty younger (age 24±5 years; 50% women) and 20 older participants (age 71±5 years; 50% women) performed three different single-step tasks of various speed and step placement, which varied the challenge to dynamic stability. The trajectory of the total body centre of mass (COM) was quantified. Mediolateral COM incongruity, defined as the difference between the peak lateral and final COM position, and trial-to-trial variability of incongruity were calculated as indicators of dynamic stability. Older adults exhibited increased instability compared to young adults, as reflected by larger COM incongruity and trial-to-trial variability. Such increases among older adults occurred despite alterations in COM kinematics during the step initiation and swing phases, which should have led to increased stability. Task related increases in instability were observed as increased incongruity magnitude and trial-to-trial variability during the two rapid stepping conditions, relative to preferred speed stepping. Our findings suggest that increased COM incongruity and trial-to-trial variability among older adults signify a reduction in dynamic stability, which may arise from difficulty in reactive control during the restabilisation phase.

Center of mass acceleration feedback control of standing balance by functional neuromuscular stimulation against external postural perturbations.

This study investigated the use of center of mass (COM) acceleration feedback for improving performance of a functional neuromuscular stimulation control system to restore standing function to a subject with complete, thoracic-level spinal cord injury. The approach for linearly relating changes in muscle stimulation to changes in COM acceleration was verified experimentally and subsequently produced data to create an input-output map driven by sensor feedback. The feedback gains were systematically tuned to reduce upper extremity (UE) loads applied to an instrumented support device while resisting external postural disturbances. Total body COM acceleration was accurately estimated (>89% variance explained) using 3-D outputs of two accelerometers mounted on the pelvis and torso. Compared to constant muscle stimulation employed clinically, feedback control of stimulation reduced UE loading by 33%. COM acceleration feedback is advantageous in constructing a standing neuroprosthesis since it provides the basis for a comprehensive control synergy about a global, dynamic variable and requires minimal instrumentation. Future work should include tuning and testing the feedback control system during functional reaching activity that is more indicative of activities of daily living.

Center of mass acceleration feedback control of functional neuromuscular stimulation for standing in presence of internal postural perturbations.

This study determined the feasibility and performance of center of mass (COM) acceleration feedback control of a neuroprosthesis utilizing functional neuromuscular stimulation (FNS) to restore standing balance to a single subject paralyzed by a motor and sensory complete, thoracic-level spinal cord injury. An artificial neural network (ANN) was created to map gain-modulated changes in total body COM acceleration estimated from body-mounted sensors to optimal changes in stimulation required to maintain standing. Feedback gains were systematically tuned to minimize the upper-limb (UL) loads applied by the subject to an instrumented support device during internally generated postural perturbations produced by volitional reaching and object manipulation. Total body COM acceleration was accurately estimated (>90% variance explained) from 2 three-dimensional (3-D) accelerometers mounted on the pelvis and torso. Compared with constant muscle stimulation employed clinically, COM acceleration feedback control of stimulation improved standing performance by reducing the UL loading required to resist internal postural disturbances by 27%. This case study suggests that COM acceleration feedback could potentially be advantageous in a standing neuroprosthesis since it can be implemented with only a few feedback parameters and requires minimal instrumentation for comprehensive 3-D control of dynamic standing function.

Center of mass acceleration feedback control for standing by functional neuromuscular stimulation: A simulation study

The potential efficacy of total body center of mass (COM) acceleration for feedback control of standing balance by functional neuromuscular stimulation (FNS) following spinal cord injury (SCI) was investigated. COM acceleration may be a viable alternative to conventional joint kinematics because of its rapid responsiveness, focal representation of COM dynamics, and ease of measurement. A computational procedure was developed using an anatomically realistic, three-dimensional, bipedal biomechanical model to determine optimal patterns of muscle excitations to produce targeted effects upon COM acceleration from erect stance. The procedure was verified with electromyographic data collected from standing nondisabled subjects undergoing systematic perturbations. Using 16 muscle groups targeted by existing implantable neuroprostheses, we generated data to train an artificial neural network (ANN)-based controller in simulation. During forward simulations, proportional feedback of COM acceleration drove the ANN to produce muscle excitation patterns countering the effects of applied perturbations. Feedback gains were optimized to minimize upper-limb (UL) loading required to stabilize against disturbances. Compared with the clinical case of maximum constant excitation, the controller reduced UL loading by 43% in resisting external perturbations and by 51% during simulated one-arm reaching. Future work includes performance assessment against expected measurement errors and development of user-specific control systems.

Pelvic Kinematic Method for Determining Vertical Jump Height

Sacral marker and pelvis reconstruction methods have been proposed to approximate total body center of mass during relatively low intensity gait and hopping tasks, but not during a maximum effort vertical jumping task. In this study, center of mass displacement was calculated using the pelvic kinematic method and compared with center of mass displacement using the ground-reaction force-impulse method, in experienced athletes (n = 13) performing restricted countermovement vertical jumps. Maximal vertical jumps were performed in a biomechanics laboratory, with data collected using an 8-camera motion analysis system and two force platforms. The pelvis center of mass was reconstructed from retro-reflective markers placed on the pelvis. Jump height was determined from the peak height of the pelvis center of mass minus the standing height. Strong linear relationships were observed between the pelvic kinematic and impulse methods (R² = .86; p < .01). The pelvic kinematic method underestimated jump height versus the impulse method, however, the difference was small (CV = 4.34%). This investigation demonstrates concurrent validity for the pelvic kinematic method to determine vertical jump height.

Effect of Four Different Starting Stances on Sprint Time in Collegiate Volleyball Players

Starting stance plays an important role in influencing short-distance sprint speed and, therefore, the ability to reach a ball during sport play. The purpose of this study was to evaluate 4 different starting stances on sprint time. Twenty-six male and female collegiate volleyball players volunteered to participate in 1 testing session. Each subject performed 3 15-ft sprint trials at each of 4 different starting stances (P-parallel, FS-false step, S-staggered, and SFS-staggered false step) in random order. Analysis of variance revealed that there was no significant interaction of sex by stance, but there were main effects for sex (men were faster than women) and stance. The FS (1.18 ± 0.10 seconds), S (1.16 ± 0.07 seconds), and SFS (1.14 ± 0.06 seconds) stances were faster than the P (1.25 ± 0.09 seconds) stance, and the SFS stance was faster than the FS stance. This indicates that starting with a staggered stance (regardless of stepping back) produced the greatest sprinting velocity over the initial 15 feet. Although taking a staggered stance seems counterproductive, the resultant stretch-shortening cycle action and forward body lean likely increase force production of the push-off phase and place the total body center of mass ahead of the contacting foot, thereby, decreasing sprint time.

Angular momentum of walking at different speeds

Recently, researchers in robotics have used regulation of the angular momentum of body segments about the total body center of mass (CoM) to develop control strategies for bipedal gait. This work was spurred by reports finding that for a “large class” of human movement tasks, including standing, walking, and running the angular momentum is conserved about the CoM. However, there is little data presented to justify this position. This paper describes an analysis of 11 male adults walking overground at 0.7, 1.0, and 1.3 times their comfortable walking speed (CWS). The normalized angular momenta about the body CoM of 12 body segments were computed about all three coordinate axes. The normalized angular momenta were both small (<0.03) and highly regulated for all subjects and walking speed with extrema that negatively correlated with walking speeds. It was found that the angular momentum of the body about its CoM during walking could be described by a small number of principal components. For the adult walkers the first three principal components accounted for more than 97% of the variability of the angular momentum about each of the three principal axes at all walking speeds. In addition, it was found that the orthogonal principal components at each speed and for each subject were similar, i.e., the vectors of the principal components at each speed and for each subject were co-linear.

Increased shoe sole hardness results in compensatory changes in the utilized coefficient of friction during walking

Based on mechanical testing, harder soled shoes have been shown to provide less available friction than soft soled shoes. Whether or not humans adjust their utilized coefficient of friction (COFu) and gait kinematics to accommodate the decrease in available friction while wearing hard soled shoes is not known. Fifty-six young adults participated in this study. Ground reaction forces, full body kinematics, stride characteristics and subjective perception of footwear slipperiness were recorded under both hard and soft soled shoe conditions. Paired t-tests were used to identify the differences between two shoes conditions. Results indicated that the peak COFu was significantly less when wearing the hard soled shoes compared to when wearing the soft soled shoes (0.23 vs. 0.26, P < 0.001). The decrease in peak COFu was the result of a decrease in the resultant shear forces at the time of peak COFu as no difference in the vertical ground reaction forces was observed. When wearing hard soled shoes, subjects demonstrated decreased total body center of mass (COM) acceleration prior to and immediately following initial contact, decreased walking velocity, shortened stride length, and reduced ankle dorsiflexion angle at initial contact. Taken together, we believe that these gait modifications represent behavioral adaptations to wearing shoes that are perceived to be more slippery.

Compensatory postural adaptations during continuous, variable amplitude perturbations reveal generalized rather than sequence-specific learning

We examined changes in the motor organization of postural control in response to continuous, variable amplitude oscillations evoked by a translating platform and explored whether these changes reflected implicit sequence learning. The platform underwent random amplitude (maximum +/- 15 cm) and constant frequency (0.5 Hz) oscillations. Each trial was composed of three 15-s segments containing seemingly random oscillations. Unbeknownst to participants, the middle segment was repeated in each of 42 trials on the first day of testing and in an additional seven trials completed approximately 24 h later. Kinematic data were used to determine spatial and temporal components of total body centre of mass (COM) and joint segment coordination. Results showed that with repeated trials, participants reduced their magnitude of COM displacement, shifted from a COM phase lag to a phase lead relative to platform motion and increased correlations between ankle/platform motion and hip/platform motion as they shifted from an ankle strategy to a multi-segment control strategy involving the ankle and hip. Maintenance of these changes across days provided evidence for learning. Similar improvements for the random and repeated segments, indicated that participants did not exploit the sequence of perturbations to improve balance control. Rather, the central nervous system may have been tuning into more general features of platform motion. These findings provide important insight into the generalizabilty of improved compensatory balance control with training.

Regulation of Angular Impulse during Two Forward Translating Tasks

Angular impulse generation is dependent on the position of the total body center of mass (CoM) relative to the ground reaction force (GRF) vector during contact with the environment. The purpose of this study was to determine how backward angular impulse was regulated during two forward translating tasks. Control of the relative angle between the CoM and the GRF was hypothesized to be mediated by altering trunk-leg coordination. Eight highly skilled athletes performed a series of standing reverse somersaults and reverse timers. Sagittal plane kinematics, GRF, and electromyograms of lower extremity muscles were acquired during the take-off phase of both tasks. The magnitude of the backward angular impulse generated during the push interval of both tasks was mediated by redirecting the GRF relative to the CoM. During the reverse timer, backward angular impulse generated during the early part of the take-off phase was negated by limiting backward trunk rotation and redirecting the GRF during the push interval. Biarticular muscles crossing the knee and hip coordinated the control of GRF direction and CoM trajectory via modulation of trunk-leg coordination.

Head and body centre of mass movement in horses trotting on a circular path

Horses are often worked along a circular trajectory but the mechanics of turning have not been reported. To develop a methodology for kinematic analysis of horses during circling and to report preliminary findings describing movements of the total body centre of mass (COMbody). Seventy-five skin markers, distributed over the head, neck, trunk and limbs of 5 sound horses, were tracked in a global coordinate system at 120 Hz as the horses trotted around a small circle. Based on segmental inertial data, 3D positions of the segmental centres of mass and COMbody were calculated. Movements of COMbody were measured relative to the cylindrical vertical plane, the radius of which was defined by a marker overlying the sixteenth thoracic vertebra. During trotting, COMbody was high at the start and end of the diagonal stance phases and low in midstance. All horses leaned to the inside of the circle, with a tilt angle of mean +/- s.d. 14.8 +/- 2.8 degrees during the entire stride. In the transverse direction, COMbody swung from side to side reaching its most inward position around the time of contact of the inside forelimb and its most outward position around the time of contact of the outside forelimb. The centre of mass of the head and neck segments (COMhead/neck) had a symmetrical, double sinusoidal pattern in the vertical direction. All horses had the same motion pattern for COMhead/neck in the transverse direction but the mean position relative to the circle line varied between horses. Horses lean to the inside when turning around a small circle. COMhead/neck and COMbody showed 2 vertical oscillations in each stride, whereas there was a single mediolateral excursion that was not symmetrical to the inside and outside of the circle line. This study provides a first step toward understanding the mechanics of locomotion during turning, which has implications in the aetiology of injuries, the response to lungeing as a diagnostic technique and the incorporation of circles into rehabilitation exercises.

Decreased limits of stability in response to postural perturbations in subjects with low back pain

Low back pain is associated with abnormal movement strategies due to changes in neuromuscular control. A plausible contributing factor to low back pain is poor control of trunk muscles, thus understanding motor control alterations in this population can guide rehabilitation. Quantification of postural responses following support surface translations is one way to examine motor control impairments in people with low back pain. Twenty-four healthy subjects [mean 33 (SD 11) years] who had no low back pain and 26 subjects [mean 39 (SD 13) years] with chronic, recurrent low back pain were instructed to stand with feet placed on separate force plates, which were mounted on a moveable platform. The platform was translated unexpectedly in one of 12 directions for a total of 72 trials. For both the sagittal and frontal planes, the net center of pressure displacement was derived and the total body center of mass was calculated by combining kinematic and anthropometric data. For sagittal plane responses, subjects with low back pain had reduced and delayed sagittal plane center of pressure responses (P<0.01) compared to the subjects without low back pain. In contrast, the sagittal plane center of mass responses were larger in magnitude (P=0.03) yet similarly delayed in onset (P=0.04) for the low back pain group. Frontal plane responses did not differ between groups. Subjects with low back pain have altered automatic postural coordination, both in terms of magnitude and timing of responses, indicating alterations in neuromuscular control.

Multijoint Control Strategies Transfer Between Tasks

In this paper, the hypothesis that multijoint control strategies are transferred between similar tasks was tested. To test this hypothesis, we studied the take-off phase of two types of backward somersault dives: one while translating backwards (Back), the other while translating forward (Reverse). An experimentally based dynamic model of the musculoskeletal system was employed to simulate the measured kinematics and reaction force data and to study the sensitivity of take-off performance to initial kinematic conditions. It was found that the horizontal velocity of the total body center of mass (CM) was most sensitive to modifications in the initial shank conditions. Consequently, the initial shank kinematics of the Back dive was modified in the optimization procedure while maintaining the joint coordination of the Back in order to generate the CM trajectory and reaction forces of a Reverse. Similarly, the initial shank kinematics of the Reverse dive was modified to simulate the CM trajectory and reaction force of the Back. It was found that small modifications in the initial shank kinematics led to change in direction of horizontal CM velocity at take-off; resulting in a switch from Back to Reverse and vice versa. In both cases, the simulated momentum conditions at departure and the bimodal shape of the reaction force-time curve were consistent with those experimentally observed. The results of this study support the hypothesis that transfer of control strategies between similar tasks is a viable option in multijoint control. This transfer of control strategy is explained using a hierarchical model of the motion control system.