Tooth Size Variation Research Articles

Restorative approaches for managing dental anomalies

Dental anomalies, which stem from a complex interplay of genetic and environmental factors during the phases of tooth development, can have multifaceted effects on the appearance, function, and alignment of teeth within the upper and lower jaw. These anomalies are primarily categorized into four main types based on the variations in the number, size, shape, and eruption timing of teeth. They manifest in diverse forms, such as missing teeth, supernumerary teeth, malformed teeth, and irregular tooth positioning. Restorative dentistry serves as a crucial avenue to rectify these anomalies, aiming to not only enhance the functionality but also the aesthetics of affected teeth, thus bolstering the overall oral health and quality of life of patients. It is of particular significance to consider temporary restorative treatments for children with dento-facial abnormalities, not only to address physical concerns but also to mitigate potential psychological trauma and bullying. Additionally, dental anomalies can heighten the susceptibility to dental caries, periodontal diseases, and occlusal irregularities, potentially necessitating intricate and costly dental interventions over time. The research project, initiated on October 12th, 2023, stems from a comprehensive exploration of existing academic literature, encompassing databases such as PubMed, web of science, and Cochrane. Restorative treatment options in modern dentistry offer a comprehensive approach to addressing structural, functional, and aesthetic irregularities in teeth. Prosthodontic solutions, including crowns, bridges, dental implants, and veneers, restore form and function while enhancing aesthetics. Endodontic and operative procedures, such as root canal therapy and dental fillings, preserve teeth, alleviate discomfort, and prevent complications. Orthodontic treatments like braces and Invisalign correct misalignments, improving both function and aesthetics. Surgical approaches, such as orthognathic surgery and impacted tooth removal, are reserved for severe cases. Treatment choices depend on the specific anomaly, emphasizing early intervention for improved oral health and overall well-being.

The Southern Levantine pig from domestication to Romanization: A biometrical approach

Zooarchaeological research has begun to expose the long and complex history of the pig in the southern Levant. In this paper, we present the first large-scale synthesis of biometrical data from pigs and wild boar in the southern Levant from sites dating from the Paleolithic through the Islamic period. We show broad morphological change over this multi-millennium period. We find the first evidence of morphological change associated with domestication in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic C (c. 7000-6400 cal. BC), at the site of Motza. This date is contemporaneous with the first evidence from kill-off patterns and relative abundance data indicating management of morphologically wild boar. Taken together, we argue for a process of local pig domestication. We also present tentative evidence for increased body size correlating with the genetic replacement in the Iron Age, when European-derived mitochondrial haplogroups replaced those of local origin. Finally, the data indicate variability in tooth size in the Roman period (c. 63 BCE – 330 CE), suggesting the exploitation of different populations of pigs. The data suggest sophisticated management techniques underwrote the upsurge in pig husbandry in the Levant in the Classical period.

Keeping 21st Century Paleontology Grounded: Quantitative Genetic Analyses and Ancestral State Reconstruction Re-Emphasize the Essentiality of Fossils.

Simple SummaryOver the last two decades of biological research, our understanding of how genes determine dental development and variation has expanded greatly. Here, we explore how this new knowledge can be applied to the fossil record of cercopithecid monkeys. We compare a traditional paleontological method for assessing dental size variation with measurement approaches derived from quantitative genetics and developmental biology. We find that these new methods for assessing dental variation provide novel insight to the evolution of the cercopithecid monkey dentition, different from the insight provided by traditional size measurements. When we explore the variation of these traits in the cercopithecid fossil record, we find that the variation is outside the range predicted based on extant variation alone. Our 21st century biological approach to paleontology reveals that we have even more to learn from fossils than previously recognized.Advances in genetics and developmental biology are revealing the relationship between genotype and dental phenotype (G:P), providing new approaches for how paleontologists assess dental variation in the fossil record. Our aim was to understand how the method of trait definition influences the ability to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships and evolutionary history in the Cercopithecidae, the Linnaean Family of monkeys currently living in Africa and Asia. We compared the two-dimensional assessment of molar size (calculated as the mesiodistal length of the crown multiplied by the buccolingual breadth) to a trait that reflects developmental influences on molar development (the inhibitory cascade, IC) and two traits that reflect the genetic architecture of postcanine tooth size variation (defined through quantitative genetic analyses: MMC and PMM). All traits were significantly influenced by the additive effects of genes and had similarly high heritability estimates. The proportion of covariate effects was greater for two-dimensional size compared to the G:P-defined traits. IC and MMC both showed evidence of selection, suggesting that they result from the same genetic architecture. When compared to the fossil record, Ancestral State Reconstruction using extant taxa consistently underestimated MMC and PMM values, highlighting the necessity of fossil data for understanding evolutionary patterns in these traits. Given that G:P-defined dental traits may provide insight to biological mechanisms that reach far beyond the dentition, this new approach to fossil morphology has the potential to open an entirely new window onto extinct paleobiologies. Without the fossil record, we would not be able to grasp the full range of variation in those biological mechanisms that have existed throughout evolution.

Crown dimensions of Malay deciduous teeth: Sex dimorphism and tooth size in Asia

ObjectiveThis study documents deciduous tooth crown dimensions and sex dimorphism in modern Malay children of Indonesia. Comparisons are made with living and prehistoric East and South Asians to better understand tooth size variation in space and through time. DesignMeasurements of the dental crown were made with a Mitutoyo digimatic caliper, interfaced with a Dell laptop, running Microsoft Excel (2003). Buccolingual (BL) measurements of maximum crown breadth of modern Malay were made by the first author. All prehistoric South Asian comparative samples were measured by the first author, data for living East and South Asians were taken from published data. All statistical analyses were conducted using SAS, Inc. (9.1 for Windows). ResultsCrown dimensions, sex dimorphism and crown areas are presented and reveal consistencies in tooth size and level of sexual dimorphism with East and South Asian living samples. Sex dimorphism in Malay crown dimensions is low (1.1%) among Asians. Total crown area is 484.7 mm2, similar to living Japanese (486.3 mm2), but greater than Hindus (476.4 mm2) of India. Compared with prehistoric groups the Malay have reduced tooth size, especially when compared with Neolithic (MR 3, 535.3 mm2) and Chalcolithic (MR 2, 515.3 mm2) Mehrgarh, Pakistan. ConclusionSex dimorphism in Malay deciduous crown dimensions is lower than average among Asians and total tooth crown area is similar to living East and South Asians but is reduced when compared with prehistoric Asian samples.

A correlative study of sella turcica bridging and dental anomalies related to size, shape, structure, number and eruption of teeth.

OBJECTIVE:The main objective of this study is to get a wider and clearer idea about the relationship between sella turcica bridging and the type of dental anomalies related to size, shape, number, structure and eruption of teeth.MATERIALS AND METHODS:For the present study, 50 pretreatment lateral cephalometric radiographs showing complete sella turcica bridging were retrieved from the 500 existing case records of patients. The control group consisted of 50 pretreatment lateral cephalograms without sella turcica bridging retrieved from the same case records by using simple random sampling. After collection of the samples, retrospective study was performed with the analysis of patient records to assess any associated dental anomaly in patients with sella turcica bridging and patients without sella turcica bridging. Shafer's classification of morphological variations in size, shape, structure, number and eruption of teeth was used to analyze and group the dental anomalies.RESULTS:The incidence of dental anomalies related to number and size of teeth was found to be higher in cases with sella turcica bridging.CONCLUSION:Lateral cephalogram is used by orthodontist routinely for diagnosis and treatment planning; it can be used as a prediction tool for dental anomalies as well. Early detection of skeletal anomalies can be used to forecast the presence of dental anomalies later in life, which will help the clinician to adopt preventive measures.

Tooth Size Variation in Assemblages of Tremacyllus (Hegetotheriidae, Notoungulata): Insights into Geographical Gradients, Systematics, and Sexual Dimorphism

Tooth Size Variation in Assemblages of Tremacyllus (Hegetotheriidae, Notoungulata): Insights into Geographical Gradients, Systematics, and Sexual Dimorphism

Comparison of Maxillary Central Incisor, Crown Angulation and Tooth Size Variation in Aesthetic and Non-aesthetic Smiles- A Cross Sectional Study

Background: An attractive smile is often attributed to incisor alignment and proclined or retroclined incisors could contribute to a less aesthetic smile. Objectives: This study was aimed to evaluate the maxillary central incisor crown inclination, crown angulation and tooth size variation in aesthetic and unattractive smiles. Methods: The study was conducted among 100 females (equally divided into aesthetic and unaesthetic smile groups), aged between 15 - 25 years, with Angle’s Class I normal occlusion and balanced profiles. Variations in maxillary central incisor crown inclination and angulation were measured on lateral cephalograms, photographs and the study models of the subjects. Variations in tooth morphology were also evaluated by measuring crown height and width in both groups. Mann-Whitney U test was performed to evaluate the difference between the aesthetic and unaesthetic smiles. P < 0.05 was considered as significant. Results: This study showed that incisor angulation was significantly higher in the unaesthetic group compared to the aesthetic group (P < 0.001). However, there was no statistically significant difference for the incisor inclination relative to the Palatal Plane between the aesthetic and unaesthetic smile groups (P = 0.086). In addition, there were significant differences between the aesthetic and the non-aesthetic groups regarding the central incisor height (P < 0.05). Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate that the possible variations in aesthetics are related to the ethnic elements that are associated with differences in crown angulations, as well as tooth size.

The bears from Dmanisi and the first dispersal of early Homo out of Africa

We report on the taxonomy and paleodiet of the bear population that inhabited the emblematic palaeoanthropological Early Pleistocene (1.8 Ma) site of Dmanisi (Georgia), based on a dual approach combining morphometrics and microwear of upper and lower teeth. Given that the teeth of Ursus etruscus Cuvier, 1823 from Dmanisi show considerable size variability, their systematic position has been debated. However, a comparative study of the coefficients of variation for tooth size measurements in several modern bear species shows that the variability in tooth size of the ursid population from Dmanisi could result from sexual dimorphism. The analysis of tooth microwear indicates that these bears inhabited a mixed environment of open plain with forest patches, where they had a browsing diet with a substantial contribution of meat and/or fish. Comparative tooth morphometric analyses of modern ursids and fossil U. etruscus indicate that this extinct species had an omnivorous behavior similar to that of extant brown bears. The ecological interactions of the Dmanisi bears with other members of the large mammals community, including the first hominins that dispersed out of Africa, are discussed in the light of this new evidence.

Dental integration and modularity in pinnipeds

Morphological integration and modularity are important for understanding phenotypic evolution because they constrain variation subjected to selection and enable independent evolution of functional and developmental units. We report dental integration and modularity in representative otariid (Eumetopias jubatus, Callorhinus ursinus) and phocid (Phoca largha, Histriophoca fasciata) species of Pinnipedia. This is the first study of integration and modularity in a secondarily simplified dentition with simple occlusion. Integration was stronger in both otariid species than in either phocid species and related positively to dental occlusion and negatively to both modularity and tooth-size variability across all the species. The canines and third upper incisor were most strongly integrated, comprising a module that likely serves as occlusal guides for the postcanines. There was no or weak modularity among tooth classes. The reported integration is stronger than or similar to that in mammals with complex dentition and refined occlusion. We hypothesise that this strong integration is driven by dental occlusion, and that it is enabled by reduction of modularity that constrains overall integration in complex dentitions. We propose that modularity was reduced in pinnipeds during the transition to aquatic life in association with the origin of pierce-feeding and loss of mastication caused by underwater feeding.

Genetic contributions to dental dimensions in brown-mantled tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).

The use of dental metrics in phylogenetic reconstructions of fossil primates assumes variation in tooth size is highly heritable. Quantitative genetic studies in humans and baboons have estimated high heritabilities for dental traits, providing a preliminary view of the variability of dental trait heritability in nonhuman primate species. To expand upon this view, the heritabilities and evolvabilities of linear dental dimensions are estimated in brown-mantled tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis) and rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Quantitative genetic analyses were performed on linear dental dimensions collected from 302 brown-mantled tamarins and 364 rhesus macaques. Heritabilities were estimated in SOLAR using pedigrees from each population, and evolvabilities were calculated manually. Tamarin heritability estimates range from 0.19 to 0.99, and 25 of 26 tamarin estimates are significantly different from zero. Macaque heritability estimates range from 0.08 to 1.00, and 25 out of 28 estimates are significantly different from zero. Dental dimensions are highly heritable in captive brown-mantled tamarins and free-ranging rhesus macaques. The range of heritability estimates in these populations is broadly similar to those of baboons and humans. Evolvability tends to increase with heritability, although evolvability is high relative to heritability in some dimensions. Estimating evolvability helps to contextualize differences in heritability, and the observed relationship between evolvability and heritability in dental dimensions requires further investigation.

Where’s the Variation? Variance Components in Tooth Sizes of the Permanent Dentition

Studies have shown that there are only a few canonical axes of tooth size variation in the permanent dentition. Despite the numerous measurements that might be taken (e.g., crown length and breadth of 32 teeth = 64 variables), most of the canonical structure is explained by 3 or 4 overarching axes of variation. This study used maximum likelihood components of variance analysis to determine where the major sources of statistical variation are among the crown dimensions in the permanent dentition. Mesiodistal and buccolingual crown dimensions were measured on all permanent teeth (excluding M3s and averaging sides) in 100 American whites and 100 American blacks, evenly divided by sex. The SAS program varcomp estimated the sources of variation across 7 aspects of the dentition, namely race, sex, arcade, tooth (incisor, canine, premolar, molar), position (mesial, distal), dimension (MD, BL), and a residual term. Most variation is shared; residual variance was just 21.8% of the total. Considering the six components of shared variance, the greatest (82.8%) was due to tooth type (I, C, P, M). In contrast, only 4.9% was attributable to the black-white race difference, which confirms results of other biological data that the preponderance of variation is within groups, not among them. More striking is the lack of variation between males and females (1.2%)—confirming the insensitivity of tooth crown dimensions for forensic purposes. Very little shared variance (0.6%) was due to tooth position, indicating that the mesial “pole” tooth that is metrically and morphologically more stable does not possess much more informational content statistically. Whether the tooth was maxillary or mandibular accounted for 6.9%. In a practical sense, the large variance due to tooth type implies that dental anthropologists commonly will want to include variables from all tooth types (I, C, P, M) rather than multiple measurements within a tooth type, since tooth type is the canonical axis of variation.

Metric Analysis of Permanent and Deciduous Teeth from Bronze Age Tell Leilan, Syria

Between 1979 and 1989 the skeletal remains of 21 adults and 38 children, yielding 317 permanent and 134 deciduous teeth, were recovered at Tell Leilan, Syria, the site of a major urban center during the emergence of complex state society in northern Mesopotamia in the mid-third millennium BC. Tooth crown dimensions (faciolingual and mesiodistal diameters, total crown area, and molar crown area) are presented and the last two serve as the primary units of comparison for a diachronic interpretation of tooth size variation in the ancient Near East. Both permanent and deciduous dental data support the pattern of dental reduction since the Middle Paleolithic that has been documented for Asia and Europe. The total crown areas for the permanent and deciduous dental samples, 1189 mm2 and 497 mm2 respectively, place this archaeological population at the smaller end of the crown area scale for the Near East; smaller in size than nearby Paleolithic and Neolithic populations. Given the paucity of odontological data for this area, this study contributes to the odontometric history of Mesopotamia and as a summary compilation and comparison of previously conducted odontometric work as it relates to the phenomenon of dental reduction within the ancient Near East.

Dental Asymmetry in a Late Archaic and Late Prehistoric Skeletal Sample of the Ohio Valley Area

Dental asymmetry (directional, anti-symmetry, and fluctuating) is analyzed in samples from two prehistoric Native American populations: a terminal Late Archaic population (3200-2700 BP) and a Late Prehistoric population (ca. 750 BP). Both directional and fluctuating asymmetry were found in each sample. Directional asymmetry occurs in only four teeth in the Late Archaic sample and in two teeth in the Late Prehistoric sample. Neither sample exhibits the tendency for opposing arch dominance in directional asymmetry. Fluctuating asymmetry is significantly greater than measurement error for all teeth in each sample. However, contrary to expectations the Late Prehistoric maize agriculturists do not show an overall greater degree of fluctuating asymmetry compared to their forager ancestors. This result coupled with a survey of pathological conditions in these populations suggest that stress levels in Ohio Valley populations, at least that stress which affected dental developmental stability, were not drastically increased with the introduction of maize agriculture. Spearman correlations between relative tooth size variation (coefficient of variation), the magnitude of fluctuating dental asymmetry, and duration of time (per tooth) spent in soft tissue development were obtained for each sample. Coefficients of variation and fluctuating asymmetry are significantly correlated in both samples but fluctuating asymmetry is significantly correlated with duration of soft tissue development only in the Late Prehistoric population.

A fool’s mission? A test of three common assumptions in dental metric analyses

Three aspects of metric variation in the permanent dentition of humans are often simply accepted as true. The first is that formation of the permanent dentition occurs within morphogenetic fields broadly associated with tooth type and jaw. The second is that dental development of among females is characterized by a higher degree of ontogenetic buffering relative to males. The third is that expression of sex dimorphism in permanent tooth size is expressed uniformly among well-nourished human populations. This study tests these assumptions through an examination of mesiodistal and buccolingual dimensions of all non-canine permanent teeth, except third molars, among 2,709 living individuals of 15 ethnic groups from South Asia. With sexes pooled, only one in four contrasts of variance among key versus distal teeth within dental fields are significantly heterogeneous, while one in four contrasts yield higher levels of variance among key teeth relative to their distal counterparts within a dental field. Such results weaken considerably orthodox applications of Butler’s dental field theory. When samples are the unit of analysis, male samples are marked by fewer dental fields with significantly heterogeneous levels of variance between key and distal members, while males and females are affected equally by significantly heterogeneous variation between key and distal members when dental fields are the unit of analysis. Such results suggest males and females are equally buffered against environmental perturbations that affect odontometric variation. One-way ANOVA indicates that a tooth’s position within a dental field ac-counts for 15.5% to 23.1% of the observed varia-tion in tooth size, while two-way ANOVA reveals that when sex is added as a second factor, the percentage of variance in tooth size explained increases from 16.7% to 30.8%, an improvement of 27.2%. Such results indicate sex dimorphism in tooth size varies in both patterning and in magnitude among these samples, thereby explaining why discriminant functions developed for one population often perform more poorly when applied to other populations.

Dental size variability in Central African Pygmy hunter-gatherers and Bantu-speaking farmers.

Odontometric studies of African populations show high within-group variation in tooth size. Overall, North Africans exhibit smaller dimensions than groups from eastern and southern sub-Saharan regions, but no previous studies have analyzed the full dental metrics among extant African Pygmy hunter-gatherers and Bantu-speaking farmers. Furthermore, the population variability in tooth crown sizes from equatorial rainforest regions remains to be elucidated. The mesiodistal and buccolingual diameters of the permanent teeth (I1-M2) were measured in vivo using high-resolution replicas from Baka Pygmies and Mvae and Yassa Bantu-speakers from Cameroon (western Africa). Analyses of variance were used to record sex-related and population-level differences in tooth sizes, and a principal component analysis of geometrically scaled measures was used to plot the odontometric variability among groups. Cameroonian Baka Pygmies differ in dental size from their Bantu-speaking neighbors. Molar teeth are larger in Pygmies than in Bantu individuals, while the anterior dentition is larger in the Bantu. Baka males exhibit significantly larger teeth than females, whereas sexual dimorphism in non-Pygmies is only present in the anterior dentition. Odontometric patterns and the degree of sexual dimorphism in dental size differ among Central African groups, indicating adaptation to their different forager and farmer lifestyles. In particular, the admixture of Bantu-speakers in Baka populations is smaller than that in other western Pygmy groups. The greater dental phenetic diversity in Baka compared to that of the smaller-toothed farmers suggests that ecogenetic and microevolutionary factors are influencing a particular divergence scenario.

Genetic mapping of molar size relations identifies inhibitory locus for third molars in mice.

Molar size in Mammals shows considerable disparity and exhibits variation similar to that predicted by the Inhibitory Cascade model. The importance of such developmental systems in favoring evolutionary trajectories is also underlined by the fact that this model can predict macroevolutionary patterns. Using backcross mice, we mapped QTL for molar sizes controlling for their sequential development. Genetic controls for upper and lower molars appear somewhat similar, and regions containing genes implied in dental defects drive this variation. We mapped three relationship QTLs (rQTL) modifying the control of the mesial molars on the focal third molar. These regions overlap Shh, Sostdc1, and Fst genes, which have pervasive roles in development and should be buffered against new variation. It has theoretically been shown that rQTL produces new variation channeled in the direction of adaptive changes. Our results provide evidence that evolutionary/disease patterns of tooth size variation could result from such a non-random generating process.

Use of Artificial Neuron Network to Predict Dental Arch Form

Objective: To develop diagnostic reference for arch form using Artificial Neuron Network (ANN) from tooth size and arch dimension variables on scanned-dental cast from patients with class I malocclusion treated orthodontically. Material and Methods: One hundred and ninety pairs of dental cast pre-post orthodontic treatment gathered from Orthodontic clinics were scanned and then all dimension variables were measured using Image Tool (gender, tooth size and arch dimension). The multivariate data were analyzed statistically using Stata (Lakeway Drive, College Station, Texas USA). The statistic results were compiled to build the neuron network software for analyzing arch form. Results: Gender and all variables from pre-treatment do not influence arch form. Intercanine width, canine depth, intermolar width, and molar depth are variables that influence arch form. The result of the statistical analyses can be used to develop software based on artificial neural network. Output program is the arch form, such as oval, square or tapered. The software can describe arch form with the accuracy of 76.31%. Conclusion: A software using Artificial Neuron Network to describe arch form can be used for diagnostic reference to Class I malocclusion.

Study of sexual dimorphism and tooth size variation in canines in south indian population

Study of sexual dimorphism and tooth size variation in canines in south indian population

A radiographic study of permanent molar development in wild Virunga mountain gorillas of known chronological age from Rwanda.

While dental development is important to life history investigations, data from wild known-aged great apes are scarce. We report on the first radiographic examination of dental development in wild Virunga mountain gorillas, using known-age skeletal samples recovered in Rwanda. In 43 individuals (0.0-14.94 years), we collected radiographs of mandibular molars, and where possible, cone beam CT scans. Molar crown and root calcification status was assessed using two established staging systems, and age prediction equations generated using polynomial regression. Results were compared to available data from known-age captive and wild chimpanzees. Mountain gorillas generally fell within reported captive chimpanzee distributions or exceeded them, exhibiting older ages at equivalent radiographic stages of development. Differences reflect delayed initiation and/or an extended duration of second molar crown development, and extended first and second molar root development, in mountain gorillas compared to captive chimpanzees. However, differences in the duration of molar root development were less evident compared to wild chimpanzees. Despite sample limitations, our findings extend the known range of variation in radiographic estimates of molar formation timing in great apes, and provide a new age prediction technique based on wild specimens. However, mountain gorillas do not appear accelerated in radiographic assessment of molar formation compared to chimpanzees, as they are for other life history traits. Future studies should aim to resolve the influence of species differences, wild versus captive environments, and/or sampling phenomena on patterns observed here, and more generally, how they relate to variation in tooth size, eruption timing, and developmental life history.

Mesiodistal and faciolingual diameters of the permanent teeth in a Jordanian population

ObjectivesThis study aimed to provide, for a Jordanian population, the first norms of the faciolingual diameters of the permanent dentition and the mesiodistal diameters of the second molars and to provide and review previously published data on the mesiodistal diameters of the permanent teeth up to the first molars in order to investigate any secular trends. DesignMesiodistal and faciolingual diameters of the permanent teeth were manually measured on 204 archival pretreatment study casts of adolescents (80 males and 124 females) aged 11–18 years. SPSS (version 16) was used to generate descriptive statistics and investigate the statistically significant differences between right and left sides and between sexes. ResultsMales had larger teeth than females, significantly in the mesiodistal dimension and less significantly in the faciolingual dimension. Moreover, in the faciolingual dimension, there was a wider variation in anterior compared with posterior teeth and in males compared with females while the variations were more consistent mesiodistally between anterior and posterior teeth and between sexes. There were some secular trends in the mesiodistal permanent tooth diameters of Jordanians toward a slight reduction and wider variation in tooth size and a slight reduction in sexual dimorphism. Conclusionsthe present study has established the first norms of the faciolingual permanent tooth diameters for a Jordanian population which were consistent with corresponding norms that have been published for few other populations. In addition, the present study has provided norms of the mesiodistal permanent tooth diameters of a Jordanian population that are newer and more complete than the previously published norms. It is anticipated that the new norms presented will be utilized in various clinical disciplines of dentistry, in basic dental research, in forensic odontology and in anthropological research.