Tons Of Plastic Research Articles

The biochemical mechanisms of plastic biodegradation.

Since the invention of the first synthetic plastic, an estimated 12 billion metric tons of plastics have been manufactured, 70% of which was produced in the last 20 years. Plastic waste is placing new selective pressures on humans and the organisms we depend on, yet it also places new pressures on microorganisms as they compete to exploit this new and growing source of carbon. The limited efficacy of traditional recycling methods on plastic waste, which can leach into the environment at low purity and concentration, indicates the utility of this evolving metabolic activity. This review will categorize and discuss the probable metabolic routes for each industrially-relevant plastic, rank the most effective biodegraders for each plastic by harmonizing and re-interpreting prior literature, and explain the experimental techniques most often used in plastic biodegradation research, thus providing a comprehensive resource for researchers investigating and engineering plastic biodegradation.

Benthic litter in fishing grounds of the Northern Adriatic: Role of the trawling fleet as cleaners of the seafloor

This study represents the baseline of estimation of the potential service provided by fishermen as “cleaners of the sea”. The amount, composition and depth distribution of marine litter in fishing grounds of the Northern Adriatic seafloor has been investigated through the fishing for litter (FFL) scheme. Passive FFL campaigns were carried out by trawlers from two of the most important fishing ports in the northern Adriatic, Chioggia and Goro, from May 2020 to May 2021. Over the course of 256 days of fishing, over 6 tons of litter were removed from 265 km2 of seafloor. Abandoned, lost and derelict fishing gears (ALDFG) were the most represented litter category (48 % of the total litter), and of these 67 % were plastic ALDFG (mostly mussel socks and fishing nets). Fouling on plastic waste was analyzed to determine the fraction of collected litter items that could be destinated to recycling. Only a small percentage of the plastic litter analyzed was “clean” from adherent and/or encrusting organisms. Approximately 2.4 tons of plastic were recovered, but, due to the biological colonization of surfaces, they cannot be recycled by using the technologies present in the area.

Atmospheric microplastic input into wetlands: Spatiotemporal patterns, drivers, and unique ecological impacts

Wetlands are major microplastic sinks with a large atmospheric input. However, many details of such deposited atmospheric microplastics entering into wetlands remain unclear, including temporal patterns of input and ecological effects. We monitored the aerial microplastics during four seasons in eleven economically developed cities along the lower reaches of the Yangtze River Basin, China. The average microplastic deposition rate was 512.31 items m−2 d−1, equivalent to an annual contribution of 17.46 metric tons of plastic to the surveyed wetlands with a total area of 1652 km2. These microplastics were predominantly composed of polyamide and polyethylene terephthalate with 61.85 ± 92.29 µm sized pellets, and we obtained similar results for microplastics intercepted on moss in wetlands. Microplastic input varied between wet and dry periods, primarily influenced by wind, rainfall and ozone concentration. Civilian vehicle density and textile industry were the primary socioeconomic factors driving microplastic deposition. Further indoor microcosm experiments revealed that moss phyllosphere bacterial community structure and function were influenced by microplastic abundance and size, exemplifying the unique ecological risks of aerially deposited microplastics to wetlands. These results indicate that mosses and their phyllosphere microbiota could serve as bio-indicators of aerial microplastic characteristics and impacts.

Pre-service teachers’ attitudes to and knowledge of marine plastic pollution and its impacts on the natural environment

Marine plastic pollution is a pervasive worldwide problem, with over 17 million metric tons of plastic entering oceans annually. While education is key to addressing this issue, initial teacher education lags behind other types of education. This paper responds to this gap by investigating a small sample of Australian early childhood and primary pre-service teachers’ (n = 13) attitudes to and knowledge of marine plastic pollution and its impact on natural environments. A mixed-methods questionnaire revealed that 100% of respondents are concerned about the impacts of marine plastic pollution, 100% believe consumers must demand less plastic, and 91% call for increased government efforts to clean up plastic pollution. Responses to the open-ended questions also identified challenges associated with tackling this issue, including the economic viability and widespread use of plastics, inadequate waste management systems, and resource constraints. Results also revealed that most respondents possess good knowledge about what constitutes marine plastic pollution and the impacts on natural and social systems. However, only a few could identify specific chemical effects of plastic pollution. This study provides baseline data to inform the development of marine plastic pollution education for initial teacher education programs, addressing a critical gap in preparing future teachers to tackle a global issue.

Pharmaceutical residues in plastic tablet containers: Impacts on recycling and the environment

High-density polyethylene tablet containers are potentially very suitable for recycling, but no data are publicly available on active pharmaceutical ingredients’ (API) residues in empty containers and if they affect the recyclability of pharmaceutical packaging. Plastic tablet containers represented 15 % of pharmaceutical primary packages sold in Finland in 2020 and 2021, equalling 350 tons of plastic per year. We studied the residues of six APIs remaining or adsorbed inside plastic tablet containers. The effects of tablet coating and usage in dose-dispensing services versus households on the API residues, and rinsing water’s ability to remove the residues were evaluated. Up to 940,000 µg/kg of carbamazepine was detected in a container of uncoated carbamazepine tablets. The residues from coated tablets containing the other five APIs were 2.4–6,100 µg/kg. Ten times higher paracetamol residues were obtained in containers from household use than from a dose-dispensing unit. Rinsing can remove most API residues, but it leads to environmental emissions. For example, rinsing water can double carbamazepine emissions from a Finnish wastewater treatment plant where plastic packaging waste effluents are processed. Considering the API concentrations, decreasing residues by rinsing and dilution with other plastic packaging waste, the residues of the studied APIs are not considered an obstacle to the recycling of plastic tablet containers. However, further research is needed on more toxic APIs and the fate of APIs in the plastics recycling process.

Industrial and Laboratory Technologies for the Chemical Recycling of Plastic Waste.

Synthetic polymers play an indispensable role in modern society, finding applications across various sectors ranging from packaging, textiles, and consumer products to construction, electronics, and industrial machinery. Commodity plastics are cheap to produce, widely available, and versatile to meet diverse application needs. As a result, millions of metric tons of plastics are manufactured annually. However, current approaches for the chemical recycling of postconsumer plastic waste, primarily based on pyrolysis, lag in efficiency compared to their production methods. In recent years, significant research has focused on developing milder, economically viable methods for the chemical recycling of commodity plastics, which involves converting plastic waste back into monomers or transforming it into other valuable chemicals. This Perspective examines both industrial and cutting-edge laboratory-scale methods contributing to recent advancements in the field of chemical recycling.

Natural sea water and artificial sea water are not equivalent in plastic leachate contamination studies.

Plastic contamination is one of the concerns of our age. With more than 150 million tons of plastic floating in the oceans, and a further 8 million tons arriving to the water each year, in recent times the scientific community has been studying the effects these plastics have on sea life both in the field and with experimental approaches. Laboratory based studies have been using both natural sea water and artificial sea water for testing various aspects of plastic contamination, including the study of chemicals leached from the plastic particles to the water. We set out to test this equivalence, looking at the leaching of heavy metals form plastic particles. We obtained leachates of polyvinyl chloride plastic pre-production nurdles both in natural and artificial sea water and determined the elements in excess from untreated water by Inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectrometry. We then used these different leachates to assess developmental success in the tunicate Ciona intestinalis by treating fertilised eggs through their development to hatched larvae. Here we report that chemical analysis of polyvinyl chloride plastic pre-production pellet leachates shows a different composition in natural and artificial sea water. We find that the zinc leaching from the plastic particles is up to five times higher in natural seawater than in artificial seawater, and this can have an effect in the toxicological studies derived. Indeed, we observe different effects in the development of C. intestinalis when using leachates in natural or artificial sea water. We also observe that not all artificial sea waters are suitable for studying the development of the tunicate C. intestinalis. Our results show that, at least in this case, both types of water are not equivalent to produce plastic leachaetes and suggest that precaution should be taken when conclusions are derived from results obtained in artificial sea water.

Assessing the Effectiveness of the Plastic Ban in the City of Bangalore in Addressing the Market Failure Associated with It

The Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike Solid Waste Management (BBMP-SWM) Bye-laws, 2019 was passed by the BBMP in 2019 to ensure proper waste management in the city alongside new rules on the consumption of plastic. According to the Karnataka state plastic board, every citizen, on an average, consumes 16kgs of plastic every month. The extended essay aims towards answering the question “To what extent has the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike Solid Waste Management (BBMP-SWM) Bye-laws, 2019 helped in reducing the negative externalities caused by the overconsumption of single-use plastic.” This study will be examining the effects of this law on the production and consumption of single-use plastics. Through this policy, the BBMP aims to revise the 2016 Karnataka State plastic Ban and enforce it in a stricter manner. This topic is significant as an estimated 20% of the 4000-tonne waste produced by the city consists of plastic. Plastics are not biodegradable, which increases pollution. Through this ban, the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike aims to reduce the external cost caused by reducing plastic consumption. Even if the plastic is marked as “recyclable” over 90% of the plastic is never actually recycled. India has been generating over 3.5 million tonnes of plastic every year. In 2017, plastic resulted in over 2.3 million premature deaths in India because of this, India made it onto the top 10 list along with China and The United States. Hence, the topic is of significant investigation. Over the years, there have been a lot of plastic bans implemented by the government. The most recent one is the Central plastic ban of 2021. Single use plastic does not biodegrade, it breaks down into smaller microplastics which continue polluting the environment.

From Plastic Waste to Green Hydrogen and Valuable Chemicals Using Sunlight and Water

AbstractOver 79 % of 6.3 billion tonnes of plastics produced from 1950 to 2015 have been disposed in landfills or found their way to the oceans, where they will reside for up to hundreds of years before being decomposed bringing upon significant dangers to our health and ecosystems. Plastic photoreforming offers an appealing alternative by using solar energy and water to transform plastic waste into value‐added chemical commodities, while simultaneously producing green hydrogen via the hydrogen evolution reaction. This review aims to provide an overview of the underlying principles of emerging plastic photoreforming technologies, highlight the challenges associated with experimental protocols and performance assessments, discuss recent global breakthroughs on the photoreforming of plastics, and propose perspectives for future research. A critical assessment of current plastic photoreforming studies shows a lack of standardised conditions, hindering comparison amongst photocatalyst performance. Guidelines to establish a more accurate evaluation of materials and systems are proposed, with the aim to facilitate the translation of promising fundamental discovery in photocatalysts design.

From Plastic Waste to Green Hydrogen and Valuable Chemicals Using Sunlight and Water.

Over 79 % of 6.3 billion tonnes of plastics produced from 1950 to 2015 have been disposed in landfills or found their way to the oceans, where they will reside for up to hundreds of years before being decomposed bringing upon significant dangers to our health and ecosystems. Plastic photoreforming offers an appealing alternative by using solar energy and water to transform plastic waste into value-added chemical commodities, while simultaneously producing green hydrogen via the hydrogen evolution reaction. This review aims to provide an overview of the underlying principles of emerging plastic photoreforming technologies, highlight the challenges associated with experimental protocols and performance assessments, discuss recent global breakthroughs on the photoreforming of plastics, and propose perspectives for future research. A critical assessment of current plastic photoreforming studies shows a lack of standardised conditions, hindering comparison amongst photocatalyst performance. Guidelines to establish a more accurate evaluation of materials and systems are proposed, with the aim to facilitate the translation of promising fundamental discovery in photocatalysts design.

Estimasi Jumlah Mismanaged Plactic Waste (MPW) Berdasarkan Kenaikan Populasi: Studi Kasus 30 Negara Tahun 2019-2022

Abstract: Humans have produced more than 8 billion tons of plastic, more than half of which is directly dumped into landfills and only about 9% is recycled. This makes the author interested in looking at the relationship between population and the amount of waste generated in the hope of helping the government in reducing the amount of waste generated. This study aims to estimate the amount of Mismanaged Plastic Waste (MPW) based on population increase, focusing on 30 countries from 2019 to 2022. The Rank Spearman correlation test method was used to evaluate the relationship between population size and the amount of MPW, showing a strong relationship with a correlation coefficient of 0.60712. Furthermore, an analysis using the Cox-Stuart test was conducted to determine the trend in population size from 2003 to 2022, which showed that there was no clear trend in the population data or an upward trend in the time span. Based on these findings, a predictive estimate of the number of MPW for the period 2019-2020 was conducted, providing additional insight into the impact of population growth on the amount of unmanaged plastic waste in these countries.

Elevating Recycling Standards: Global Requirements for Plastic Traceability and Quality Testing

Globally, we produced 489 million tonnes of plastic in 2023 and we recycled only 8.17%. This study navigates the landscape of recycling practices, highlighting the imperative to reevaluate and upgrade industry-standard protocols. The central focus of this study is on integrating more robust traceability criteria and advanced quality testing methodologies to improve recycled plastics with intrinsic value, particularly in anticipation of future market applications. The investigation examines the prevailing industry standard traceability and quality framework. It then assesses the applicability of those standards using technical datasheets for recycled high-density polyethylene resin grades. This study proposes a paradigm shift toward a more sophisticated analytical approach. This comprehensive framework aims to transcend traditional quality and traceability evaluation. This paper employs a mixed methodological approach, including a thematic analysis of relevant industry standard regulations and an in-depth literature review, to address the need for an operational framework for recycling quality. This study highlights that recycling quality depends on technical attributes determining functionality and application suitability. While some properties are measured, the conventional framework does not address the degradation level of recycled plastic. This study concludes with broader considerations, emphasising the need for a traceability model to disclose material history and composition. This study advocates an industry-wide upgrade in recycling standards, prioritising traceability and quality testing. The proposed enhancements in testing grids and the improved understanding of recycling quality collectively contribute to a holistic framework, unlocking the intrinsic value of recycled plastics for future market applications.

Thermo-mechanical performance characteristics of glass reinforced HDPE composites: A comprehensive review

Millions of tonnes of plastic and glass waste is produced worldwide, with only a limited quantity being recycled with the majority ending up in landfill, our oceans or in stockpiles. Even though current applications exist for recycled glass and plastic, there is still a need to introduce recyclate to different industries. This review presents an investigation aimed at mechanical and thermal property improvements by the incorporation of reinforcement material into a polymeric matrix. The performance of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and glass composites manufactured with different levels of glass, additives and surface treatments have been evaluated by analysing several past investigations. The critical parameters influencing the mechanical and thermal performance of HDPE-Glass composites were identified to be the type of reinforcement, glass content, additives utilised, and the different manufacturing methods employed. Optimised mix designs proposed by researchers have been analysed along with reaction mechanisms. This review has identified a composite material to be further refined and optimised with the potential to be improved by integrating reclaimed waste to manufacture composites by promoting a zero-waste economy. Improvements in tensile strength up to 71% can be observed with the implementation of 20% by weight of glass reinforcement in HDPE composites. The use of maleic anhydride grafted polyethylene (MAgPE) as a compatibilizer facilitates the stress transfer between the two phases by improving their bonding with tensile and flexural strength increments up to 85% and 25%, respectively. This review is a valuable resource for future researchers as it identifies crucial research gaps in HDPE-Glass composite manufacturing and synthesises key findings in existing literature.

TrashNet: An object detection model that classifies images of trash in real-time

Global warming and pollution are huge problems today. One of the main factors behind these two problems is plastic pollution. As plastic takes millennia to decompose, an estimated 270,000 tons of plastic are floating around our oceans, which is too much to be considered “safe.” This problem is mainly caused by the fact that people improperly dispose of plastic, whether that be through littering or putting it into the trash instead of a recycling bin. To better identify and correct plastic that was inappropriately disposed of, a deep-learning model (YOLOv5) that uses object detection and classification was implemented to detect which bin someone’s trash should go in. The YOLOv5 uses the PyTorch framework for the object detection model. Using this model helped solve this problem, as a custom object-detection model would have needed to be developed, which would not have been efficient. The model was tested by trying to run the model on pieces of trash placed on a tabletop and analyzing the code output on which trash bin the waste will have to be thrown away. After conducting multiple tests, the model exhibited a commendable accuracy rate of 90%, which is noteworthy given the substantial amount of data leveraged. To further improve its efficacy and real-world value, future research could explore augmenting the training data, refining the object detection model for greater precision, and expanding the dataset to encompass a broader range of use cases.

Conversion of Plastic Waste into Fuel by Pyrolysis

Abstract: Plastics have woven their way into our daily lives and now pose a tremendous threat to the environment. Over a 100 million tons of plastics are produced annually worldwide, and the used products have become a common feature at overflowing bins and landfills. Though work has been done to make futuristic biodegradable plastics, there have not been many conclusive steps towards cleaning up the existing problem. Here, the process of converting waste plastic into value added fuels is explained as a viable solution for recycling of plastics. Thus, two universal problems such as problems of waste plastic and problems of fuel shortage are being tackled simultaneously. In this study, plastic wastes (low density polyethylene) were used for the pyrolysis to get fuel oil that has the same physical properties as the fuels like petrol, diesel etc. Pyrolysis runs without oxygen and in high temperature of about 300°C which is why a reactor was fabricated to provide the required temperature for the reaction. The waste plastics are subjected to depolymerization, pyrolysis, thermal cracking and distillation to obtain different value-added fuels such as petrol, kerosene, and diesel, lube oil etc. Converting waste plastics into fuel hold great promise for both the environmental and economic scenarios. Thus, the process of converting plastics to fuel has now turned the problems into an opportunity to make wealth from waste.

Microplastic Content in Fish and Sea Water at Air Tawar Coast, Padang City, Indonesia

Every year, millions of tons of plastic contaminate marine ecosystems, disrupting the natural balance and endangering marine life. Marine debris, especially plastic, is exposed to sunlight and repeated physical activities in the ocean, eventually breaking down into microscopic particles known as microplastics. This research aims to identify the presence of microplastics in fish and seawater at Air Tawar Coast, Padang City, Indonesia, based on their shapes, colors, and sizes. Seawater samples were collected at 3 stations using purposive random sampling along the direction of net trawling. Water samples were collected using a plankton net and filtered horizontally at the sea surface. Fish samples were obtained from the catches of fishermen, using trawl net (maelo pukek). The fish sampled were Selar and Kembung fish. Microplastics found in seawater and fish exhibited various shapes, including fibers, films, fragments, and pellets, with pellets and granules being the most dominant shapes. The colors of microplastics found in this study were black, brown, red, orange, blue, yellow, green, and purple, with dark colors (black and brown) being the most dominant. The abundance of microplastics at station 1 was 140.12 particles/m3, at station 2 was 151.27 particles/m3, and at station 3 was 129.61 particles/m3. The number of microplastic particles found in Kembung was higher than in Selar. On average, Selar fish contained 228 particles/individual, while Kembung fish contained an average of 267.5 particles/individual. The smallest particle size was found in pellet form, with a size of 8.12 µm, while the largest particle size was found in film form, measuring 174.56 µm.

Balancing the Deep Ocean Plastics Budget

Up to 11 million metric tons of plastic are sitting on the seafloor, mostly near coasts and shipping corridors.

Natural sea water and artificial sea water are not equivalent in plastic leachate contamination studies

Background Plastic contamination is one of the concerns of our age. With more than 150 million tons of plastic floating in the oceans, and a further 8 million tons arriving to the water each year, in recent times the scientific community has been studying the effects these plastics have on sea life both in the field and with experimental approaches. Laboratory based studies have been using both natural sea water and artificial sea water for testing various aspects of plastic contamination, including the study of chemicals leached from the plastic particles to the water. Methods We obtained leachates of PVC plastic pre-production nurdles both in natural and artificial sea water, and determined the elements in excess from untreated water by Inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectrometry. We then used these different leachates to assess developmental success in the tunicate Ciona intestinalis by treating fertilised eggs through their development to hatched larvae. Results Here we report that chemical analysis of PVC plastic pre-production pellet leachates shows a different composition in natural and artificial sea water. We find that the Zn leaching from the plastic particles is reduced up to five times in artificial sea water, and this can have an effect in the toxicological studies derived. Indeed, we observe different effects in the development of C. intestinalis when using leachates in natural or artificial sea water. We also observe that not all artificial sea waters are suitable for studying the development of the tunicarte C. intestinalis. Conclusions Our results show that, at least in this case, both types of water are not equivalent to produce plastic leachaetes and suggest that precaution should be taken when conclusions are derived from results obtained in artificial sea water.

Plastics in the deep sea – A global estimate of the ocean floor reservoir

The exponential increase in plastic production coupled with variable global waste management system efficiencies has resulted in large amounts of plastic waste entering the ocean every year. Although we know millions of tonnes of plastic have entered the oceans, we do not yet understand the patterns of its accumulation across space nor the drivers of these patterns. The deep ocean is expected to be a resting place, or reservoir, for most plastic pollution. Here, we conducted a rigorous, systematic review of previously published datasets to synthesize our understanding of macroplastic pollution (>5 mm) on the ocean floor. Using extracted data, we built predictive additive models to estimate the amount and distribution of plastic on the ocean floor. We built two models: one using data from remote operated vehicles (ROVs) and another using data from bottom trawls. Using the model built with ROV data, which was better-constrained, we estimate that 3 to 11 million metric tonnes (MMT) of plastic pollution resides on the ocean floor as of 2020. This is of similar magnitude to annual inputs from land and one to two orders of magnitude greater than what is predicted to be floating on the ocean surface. To improve future estimates and our understanding of global patterns, we provide recommendations for ocean floor monitoring of plastic pollution.

A Review of Microplastic Identification and Characterization Methods in Aquatic Environments

Plastic waste has become a major global issue, with over 390.7 million tons of plastic produced in 2021. Because of its durability, low recycling rates, poor waste management, and maritime use, a considerable portion of plastic waste ends up in aquatic environments. Photo-oxidation and other mechanisms degrade plastics into microplastics (MPs), which are particles smaller than 5 mm. MPs can spread through the aerial, terrestrial, and aquatic areas, and running waterways serve as conduits for MP transport across various ecosystems. MPs have been found at various levels of the food web, and animals can ingest, inhale, or absorb them through their skin. MPs pose a significant health risk to flora and fauna, including marine creatures and humans, due to their small size, diverse colors, high abundance, and ability to adsorb antibiotic-resistant pathogens, causing cytotoxicity, acute reactions, undesirable immunological responses, neurotoxicity, and DNA alteration. MPs have a negative economic impact on industries such as agriculture, fishing, tourism, etc. Detecting and quantifying the presence of MPs is therefore critical. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the various techniques and equipment used to detect and characterize MPs in aqueous environments. Identifying and educating the public about the primary sources of plastic pollution can help reduce the number of MPs in the environment.