Chamber Tombs Research Articles

A Study on the Large jar Ritual Sites Outside the Protection Stone of Wooden Chamber Tombs with stone mound of Gyeongju

A Study on the Large jar Ritual Sites Outside the Protection Stone of Wooden Chamber Tombs with stone mound of Gyeongju

Manufacturing Techniques of the Mortar Excavated from the Tieguai Tomb of the Northern Song Dynasty in Nanling, Southern China

ABSTRACT Glutinous rice mortar is a traditional lime-based building material which was first used in China during the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279 CE) according to ancient Chinese documents. The Tieguai Tomb, dating back to the late Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127 CE) in Nanling, Southern China, was built by using mortar for its tomb chamber, making it the earliest mortar tomb found in China to date. In this study, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thin-section petrography, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and starch grain analyses were conducted to comprehensively investigate the manufacturing techniques of the mortar from the Tieguai tomb. The results show that the mortar is a type of organic–inorganic mixed material made of glutinous rice pulp, lime, clay, and fine sand. This finding indicates that glutinous rice mortar had already been used as a building material as early as the late Northern Song Dynasty, which is the earliest use record for this material in China. This study also provides direct scientific evidence for exploring the origin of glutinous rice mortar and is of great importance for reconstructing the history of Chinese traditional building materials and architectural techniques.

The historic chronology and character of Stone chamber Tombs in Neungsan-ri as seen by the excavated a records

The historic chronology and character of Stone chamber Tombs in Neungsan-ri as seen by the excavated a records

Reconsideration of the structure of above-ground stone-mounded wooden chamber tombs

Reconsideration of the structure of above-ground stone-mounded wooden chamber tombs

皇南里 乙墳의 재인식

Hwangnam-li No. Eul(乙) Tomb is one of the ‘Hwangnam-dong Small-sized Tumli’ in Gyeongju which were surveyed during the Japanese Colonial Era. During the process of examining the materials related to this tomb, I concluded that this tomb is the ‘early stone chamber tomb of Silla’s capital city’. The introduction of stone chamber tombs in Silla’s capital city must have been a major milestone in the development of Silla’s tumuli culture. If Hwangnam-li No. Eul(乙) Tomb was constructed during the process of the introduction, there is a need to have a deeper understanding of it. Therefore, this paper organizes materials related to the Hwangnam-li No. Eul(乙) Tomb. The materials include five short reports and thirty-nine gelatin dry plate photos. Through these materials, information on the location of the tomb, its mound, depth, direction of the main axis, Room No. 1 (auxiliary chamber), and Room No. 2 (main chamber) can be identified. In particular, Room No. 1 and No. 2 are analyzed in detail in the order of their chamber’s internal structure, and the excavated artifacts. Furthermore, based on the restored content from the analysis, this paper provides a supplementary explanation of the process of introduction of stone chamber tombs in Silla’s capital city which used to be explained mainly by the double burial of Bomun-dong in Gyeongju and other stone chamber tombs. This focuses on the changes in the type of tombs and the location of tumuli in Silla’s capital city and the structural genealogy of Hwangnam-li No. Eul(乙) Tomb and its meaning. This paper’s significance lies in the fact that Hwangnam-li No. Eul(乙) Tomb, which has been far from our memory for a period of slightly less than 100 years since its survey in 1926, is newly examined and documented, and through doing so, the process of introducing early stone chamber tombs in Silla’s capital city is studied more detailed.

積石木槨墓 出現期의 樣相

The wooden chamber tomb with stone mound, representing the Silla period, is characterized by its high and large burial mounds. Therefore, the emergence of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds signifies the construction of such high and large burial mounds. However, in the early stages, the typical features of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds were not clearly observed, leading to various uncertainties. Currently, the earliest emergence of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds is observed in Coffins No. 3 and 4 in Tomb No. 109 in Hwangnam-dong. However, unlike typical wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds, the wooden chambers in this tomb overlap vertically, and the placement of protective stones around the perimeter of the mound is also indistinct. This paper aims to elucidate the characteristics of the emergence period of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds, starting from these uncertainties. Four tombs dating before and after the emergence of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds were reviewed. As a result, it was observed that despite being tombs close to the highest social hierarchy of their time, they were later overlapped or destroyed by unrelated tombs from subsequent periods. This phenomenon was commonly observed in these tombs but not in wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds that appeared afterward. Additionally, these tombs lacked protective stones and exhibited relatively low burial mounds. Therefore, the reason for overlap or destruction by later tombs can be attributed to the low and flat burial mounds. In conclusion, contrary to previous assumptions, it can be inferred that immediately after the emergence of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds, the burial mounds were low and flat. Subsequently, they evolved to have higher burial mounds along with protective stones. Recently, instances have been confirmed where burial mounds without protective stones were overlapped vertically beneath tombs with protective stones, indicating the characteristics of the emergence period of wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds.

Mortuary Practices, Rituality, and Commemorative Places: A View of Kohne Tepesi in the Southern Basin of the Araxes River, Iran

ABSTRACT Ritual practices as behavior, and the cognitive acknowledgment of life and death, foster a depth in social identity, collective social memory, and a societal worldview. This paper outlines the evidence of Early Bronze Age burial practices in northwestern Iran to discuss the newly discovered chamber tombs at Kohne Tepesi within the broader context of mortuary practices during the middle and last part of the 3rd millennium b.c. The findings from Kohne Tepesi support the idea that, at least for parts of Kura-Araxes society, burial rites and commemoration of the dead played a crucial role in their worldview. Furthermore, this site demonstrates that the changes in symbolic practices and social behavior during the Early Kurgan period were not spontaneous but rooted in the last phases of the Kura-Araxes period and that the perceptions of earlier traditions had been conserved in long-term social memory.

삼국~통일신라시대 다각형 건물의 축조시기와 특징

The polygonal buildings from the Three Kingdoms Period are deemed related to religious buildings associated with temples, namely wooden pagodas. With the investigation of a presumed palace site inside Hwandosanseong Fortress in Ji’an Prefecture of China and Najeong, the well, in the west of Namsan Mountain in Gyeongju, the polygonal buildings are seen as facilities related to national rituals. In addition, there were discussions about their characteristics with the investigation of polygonal building sites in fortresses located in the Hanggang River basin in the Gyeonggi-do region. The examination of polygonal buildings investigated in Korea showed that Goguryeo and Silla chose octagonal buildings and Baekje, dodecagonal buildings during the Three Kingdoms Period. In the Silla region, in particular, octagonal buildings constructed around ancient tombs with stone chamber tombs with a tunnel entrance and rectangular stonework are deemed ceremonial facilities related to tomb rituals. In this light, most polygonal building sites are presumed to have been constructed around the 9th century, the later years of the Unified Silla Dynasty, other than those constructed during the Three Kingdoms Period, and the dates could be presumed with the earthenware excavated in Hanam Iseongsanseong Fortress. It is a building related to rituals as it coexists with the rectangular stonework adjacent to the tombs. In conclusion, polygonal buildings are deemed ceremonial facilities related to national, local, and tomb rituals during the Three Kingdoms to the Unified Silla Dynasty Periods.

경남내륙지역 목관·목곽묘의 구조적 특징과 축조양상

This study examined the wooden gasket tombs and wooden chamber tombs in Gyeongnam Inland areas from two main perspectives. It summarizes recent excavation cases to review the structural characteristics of these tombs and infers the construction style and burial methods through the example of the Jeongjang-ri Tomb No. Ⅲ-86. Firstly, the wooden gasket tombs consist of ① burial area (tomb pit), ② wooden gasket, ③ backfill soil, ④ topsoil, ⑤ wooden fence, and ⑥ mound, which are not significantly different from those found in the Yeongnam region. However, the wooden gasket tomb at Jangchon-ri B-25 is a unique half-cut chamber type. What is particularly noteworthy is that the lower part of the tomb pit is excavated about 10° eastward from the top, where the wooden gasket is placed. Additionally, the wooden gasket tomb at Dohang-ri #48 lacks backfill soil and exhibits a distinctive structure with retaining walls. The structure of the wooden chamber tombs consists of ① burial area (tomb pit), ② wooden chamber, ② wooden gasket, ③ pedestal, ④ backfill soil, ⑤ topsoil, ⑥ capstone, and ⑦ outer wall. There are various types of wooden chamber tombs, including single-chamber style, double-chamber style, and compound chamber style. Among them, the wooden chamber tombs in Jeongjang-ri is notably distinct because it has separate compartments on both walls for the relics among the double-chamber style tombs that have both the inner and outer walls and the single-chamber style tombs. Additionally, the floor surface is excavated to install a pedestal, and two to five wooden planks are placed across it. And it is clear that the inside and outside are installed on the wooden board. Second, the architectural features and burial styles have been reconstructed by inferring the procedure of construction based on the structural features of the Jeongjang-ri Tomb No. Ⅲ-86. The assumed procedure is as follows: Excavation of the ① burial area and ② tomb pit and installation of the pedestal → Installation of horizontal wooden planks and longitudinal planks → ④ Installation of inner and outer walls and backfilling → ⑤ Placement of body and artifacts → ⑥ Closing and sealing of the wooden gasket and mound construction. Therefore, the Jeongjang-ri Tomb No. Ⅲ-86, among others, holds significance as it provides an opportunity to comprehensively reconstruct the structural characteristics and construction processes of wooden chamber tombs in the Gyeongnam Inland region.

AN AEGEAN MIRROR FROM HALA SULTAN TEKKE, CYPRUS

SummaryThis study deals with the results of the 2023 fieldwork at the extramural cemetery of the Late Bronze Age harbour city of Hala Sultan Tekke. One of the three excavated tombs in 2023 was the undisturbed Chamber Tomb XX, which is dated around 1300 BC. It contained a riveted bronze mirror, a rare type in Cyprus at that time, which is part of a mortuary context of four individuals out of a total of 17 individuals and 264 complete objects, many of them imported from a vast area, which includes the Mycenaean, Minoan, Egyptian and Levantine cultures. The current paper presents this mirror and associated contexts. As regards the provenance of the mirror, the Aegean is suggested as the area of manufacture, and more precisely Crete, suggesting potential evidence of direct contact between individuals from Crete and Hala Sultan Tekke.

영산강유역 대형석실묘 출토 목관부속구의 변천과 의미

This paper presents the stages of the wooden coffin accessories of the large stone chamber tombs in the Yeongsan River Basin based on an examination and comparison of those wooden coffin accessories. In addition, through a comparison with examples from of the Baekje capital during the Ungjin period, the way in which the meaning of the wooden coffin accessories changed was observed. In the Ungjin period tombs of the Yeongsan River basin, wooden coffin accessories of different types were excavated, and it is believed that two to three coffins were generally used. The combination of wooden coffin accessories can be divided into four stages: the first stage is when headless nails were used; the second stage is when square-headed nails were used; the third stage is when circular coffin rings and round-headed nails were used; the fourth stage is when square coffin rings were added and round-headed nails continued to be used. It is estimated that the first stage is at the late of the 5th century, the second stage is early of the 6th century, the third and fourth stage is at the mid-6th century. The wooden coffin accessories excavated from Ungjin tombs in the Yeongsan River Basin differ in distribution pattern, and in the first half of the Ungjin period, such artifacts were identified in Dasi, Naju, and it is estimated that this area was related to Baekje from early on. In the late Ungjin period, the wooden coffins of the Baekje royal class tombs appear in the northern tombs of the Yeongsan River Basin and subsequently change in a similar manner. It is estimated that the groups that constructed the tombs in this region emerged through various roles, while maintaining a close relationship with the capital of Baekje. In addition, it is noteworthy that in the southwestern region of Naju in the early Sabi period, a pattern of wooden accessory combinations similar to that of the Baekje capital appeared. The use of wooden coffins was an important part of the burial ritual of ancient tombs, and it can be estimated, through the wooden coffin accessories, that almost the same burial rituals as that of the capital of Baekje were performed.

Building a Mycenaean chamber tomb catalogue from terrestrial laser scan data

Detailed 3D information on vulnerable archaeological sites can document cultural heritage and contribute to its preservation. The Late Bronze Age Mycenaean cemetery of Aidonia, Greece, is a representative case of a vulnerable site. Tomb looting has occurred sporadically since the 1970s, when the Greek government was made aware of the site. Anthropogenic activities and natural denudation may affect the loss of structural integrity of tombs. In this contribution, terrestrial laser scanning and geosciences are combined to document the vulnerable cemetery through the generation of a tomb catalogue. The emphasis is on techniques applied to point clouds to extract architectural elements. The catalogue consists of 208 architectural and geological measurements, 112 qualitative observations, maps, and point clouds images displaying the architecture of 16 tombs. The tombs are mainly orientated northeast-southwest and northwest-southeast, and their average total length is 13 m. The average volume of chambers with preserved roofs is 46 m3.

原田淑人 調査의 普門里古墳 檢討

In Bomun-dong, Gyeongju-si, there is a wooden chamber tomb with stone mounds (Dolmuji deonneol tomb) called ‘Bomun-ri Ancient Tomb,’ which was investigated by Japanese Yoshito Harada in 1918. Although the contents of the investigation were briefly introduced in 1922, a comprehensive review of the tomb and the meaning of its construction were not properly evaluated.
 Many photographs and drawings from the time of the investigation remain as data on the Bomun-ri Ancient Tomb. Based on this data, this paper comprehensively reviewed the structure, construction aspects, and excavated artifacts of the Bomun-ri Ancient Tomb. As a result, the Bomun-ri Ancient Tomb is a medium-sized wooden chamber tomb with stone mounds with a diameter of about 25m, and various accessories, harnesses, bronze vessels, and other prestige items were confirmed, making it possible to estimate the high status of the protagonist. However, the number of buried relics is less than that of the wooden chamber tomb with stone mounds of the same period, the structure is simple, and the fact that it is located on a hill is a unique characteristic feature of the Bomun-ri Ancient Tomb.
 Judging by the excavated artifacts, the Bomun-ri Ancient Tomb was built in the first half of the 6th century. This is an example of a phenomenon in which wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds were moved to surrounding mountains from the stage just before the adoption of stone chamber tombs (Dolbang tomb) in the royal capital of Silla. This appearance shows that the wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds were already moved to mountainous areas in the first half of the 6th century due to the lack of cemeteries on flat land, the emergence of new stone chamber tombs, changes in funeral rites, etc. There is a possibility that wooden chamber tombs with stone mounds like the Bomun-ri Ancient Tomb existed in the Seoak-dong area, a new royal graveyard of Silla, in the first half of the 6th century.

THE EARLY BRONZE AGE CEMETERY AT ÇEŞME–BOYALIK IN COASTAL WESTERN ANATOLIA

Early Bronze Age burial practices in western Anatolia have been much discussed, and the general developmental stages of these traditions have been defined by scholars over the course of years. The first half of the third millennium sees the use of a variety of grave types, namely, stone cist, pithos and simple pit burials; meanwhile, during the second half of the millennium, pithos burials seem to predominate. Short-term rescue excavations at Boyalık, in Çeşme District, Izmir Province, reveal the presence of a new type of burial tradition in coastal western Anatolia dating to the middle of the third millennium BC. The cemetery revealed the use of rock-cut chamber tombs for the first time in this region. This paper presents the unique graves and their finds from Boyalık cemetery and discusses the implications of this new tradition for the third-millennium archaeology of the wider Aegeo-Anatolian region.

신라 횡혈식석실묘의 십이지상과 진묘 인식

A stone chamber tomb with corridor entrances is a burial system which was very popular in ancient East Asia and was also employed as a burial system for the ruling class in the Silla dynasty. The appearance of talismanic exquisite instruments as burial accessories is assumed to be related to changes in the Silla burial system. As the Silla wooden chamber with stone mound are a stone-lined pit, they have a one-time closed structure. However, the with talismanic exquisite instruments to prevent intrusion from outside, such as tomb theft, tomb damage, or invisible evil spirits. The Silla dynasty would have employed a new type of burial system known as a stone chamber tomb and these associated exquisite instruments as well. In the case of with Now that the Silla dynasty did not adopt mural paintings for most of the stone chamber tombs, the vestiges of tomb guardians are hardly found unlike the mural pain tin gs of However, a dragon which is on e of the twelve zodiac an imal deities and defense deity appears as a tomb guardian in the Silla stone chamber tomb. The twelve zodiac animal deities were placed along with other clay figures inside the tomb chamber in the early period but gradually buried outside the tomb chamber and changed into ornaments of stone circles around the tomb. The twelve zodiac animal deities of Silla wore ordinary clothes or armors and bore weapons as features, which suggests that the twelve zodiac animal deities were used as gatekeepers, tomb guardians, in the stone chamber tombs of Silla.

백제 한성기 횡혈식석실분의 분포 특성과 지방지배 방식의 다양성

The emergence and spread of stone chamber tombs with corridor(橫穴式石室墳) during Baekje’s Hanseong period are understood as closely linked to the rule of provinces however, these tombs are not evenly distributed across the area of Baekje, but concentrated in specific areas. The purpose of this article is to grasp the characteristics of the distribution of stone chamber tombs with corridor in the Hanseong period of Baekje, thereby looking into the historical and cultural implications of these characteristics. Stone chamber tombs with corridor adopted by the central Baekje in the late 4th century spread in three stages to various regions of Baekje ranging from Gyeonggi region to inland Chungcheong and the downstream region of Geumgang River. The aspects of the step-by-step distribution of stone chamber tombs with corridor show the process of Baekje’s power expansion to the area of Mahan, and verify that Baekje’s governing strategy was reflected in this process. While such a distribution of stone chamber tombs with corridor is hardly found in the distribution area of rock mound tombs (積石墳丘墓) among tomb systems in Mahan, its close correlation is confirmed in the distribution areas of earth mound tombs (盛土墳丘墓) and of ring ditched pit tombs (周溝土壙墓). And it was found that the distribution density is highest in the distribution area of ring ditched pit tombs. This implies that while Baekje tried to accomplish provincial rule by spreading stone chamber tombs with corridor intensively in the cultural area origin that was foreign to Baekje’s underlying culture, they needed not bother to spread stone chamber tombs with corridor in the cultural area because Baekje was able to govern the cultural area origin with relative ease on the basis of cultural and social sameness. That is, Baekje realized provincial rule by applying different systems according to areas of Mahan in the process of integrating the Mahan society. On the other hand, Baekje made the existing local traditional tombs disappear or coexist after spreading stone chamber tombs with corridor to local community in the distribution areas of earth mound tombs and of ring ditched pit tombs where underlying culture was different; or imposed indirect rule by granting prestige goods while respecting the existing local tombs as in the distribution area of rock mound tombs. And thus, the aspects of provincial rule were not uniform. This means that Baekje accomplished provincial rule through regulating the use of stone chamber tombs with corridor on the basis of the cultural sameness or difference of underlying culture in a broad framework, while adopting various governing strategies in detail in consideration of the circumstances of each provincial society. It appears that as for the province governing systems, multiple ruling strategies were applied, such as the central regulation and differentiation of tomb systems, the use of provincial desire for imitating the central tomb system, and the securing of support base through respect for the existing local tomb system. As a result, Baekje created circumstances in which it needed not proceed with multidirectional territorialization across all the areas including the distribution area of earth mound tombs, as well as the distribution area of rock mound tombs. And consequently, Baekje was able to win a victory in competition with Mokjiguk (目支國) and integrate the society of Mahan.

The excavation of M793 at Liujiazhuang North in Yinxu, Anyang, Henan

Abstract In August 1994, the Anyang Team, Institute of Archaeology of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences excavated tomb M793 at Liujiazhuang North in Yinxu, Anyang City, Henan Province. It is a vertical earthen pit tomb equipped with one coffin, one burial chamber, and a waist pit. Pottery, bronze, jade, stone, bone, and shell artifacts were unearthed. Tomb M793 yielded bronze assemblages with inscriptions of “Yajiang” 亚弜, suggesting that the neighboring area was likely where the Yajiang clan dwelled. The characteristics of grave goods suggest that the tomb dates approximately to the late stage of Yinxu Phase II. Bronze inscriptions and the size of the tomb chamber indicate that the tomb occupant was a minor leader of the Yajiang or Jiang clan, a member of the Jiang people recorded in oracle bone inscriptions, rather than the main leader of the Yajiang or Jiang clan. This excavation provides crucial clues for confirming Liujiazhuang North as one of the significant settlements for the Yajiang or Jiang clan.

人骨 出土 事例로 본 中古期 新羅古墳 追加葬의 再認識

Multiple bodies were buried in stone chamber tombs with old-style horizontal entrances that were designed to accommodate additional burials. The number of additional burials and time span between themcan be determined through physical research. However, the scarcity of cases where human bones were excavated has hindered the restoration of detailed aspects of these burials. Nevertheless, we focused on the possibility of restoration by studying the exposure of human bones in existing data. Prior to this, we organized the terminology related to additional burials and proceeded to analyze ancient tombs discovered in areas that date back tothe middle ancient period of Silla, where human bones from more than one individual were found. As a result, we categorized the bones into four types based on their exposure.
 The above data highlights several issues regarding additional burials. Firstly, it is observed that the number of buried bodies does not directly correspond to the number of thalami. Additionally, we propose the possibility of a facility specifically designed for burying bones collected from an individual’s remains. It is equally plausible that altars for burying remains or funeral altars were constructed for the purpose of interring the gathered bones. Furthermore, we have also confirmed that the types of tombs prepared prior to death were likewise utilized for additional burials. Our conclusions suggest that these phenomena emergedfrom the re-dissemination of Silla’s central regulations and perspectives on horizontal entrance tombs and funeral ceremonies in rural areas sincethe sixth century, along with the corresponding pressure to adopt these burial practices.

The New Swedish Cyprus Expedition (The Söderberg Expedition): Excavations at Hala Sultan Tekke autumn 2021 and spring 2022. Preliminary results

In 2021 and 2022, the 13th and 14th seasons of excavations at the Late Bronze Age site of Hala Sultan Tekke were carried out in Area A, and as a result of these investigations numerous tombs were found. These tombs were threatened by farming. Four magnetic anomalies, indicated in the 2017 survey magnetometer map, were investigated. They represent three tombs, L198, TT, and UU, and the probable Offering Pit SS-S. The minimum number of individuals (MNI) in Pit Tomb L198, which contains only secondary burials, is six. They are associated with 21 ceramic vessels of which a few were imported from Anatolia. Chamber Tomb TT was completely excavated and contained a minimum of 25 individuals and 78 objects. Among these are 47 ceramic vessels of which a few are from the Mycenaean sphere of culture. Other mortuary gifts are various objects of metal, faience, carnelian, haematite, and rock crystal in addition to three scarabs. The incompletely excavated large (Chamber?) Tomb UU contained, so far, a minimum of 19 individuals and 140 objects. They comprise 124 ceramic vessels including numerous Late Helladic, Late Minoan, and Anatolian pottery. Other finds are bronze and gold jewellery, the latter including a diadem, and a duck-shaped ivory box from the same context as Egyptian-imported vessels of calcite. None of the tombs and the offering pit, which can all be roughly dated to the 14th century BC, were looted. The special arrangements of the human bones in Chamber Tomb TT and the multitude of imported materials in Tomb UU offer additional insights into complex Late Cypriot mortuary practices and the far-reaching interregional connections of the urban élites of Hala Sultan Tekke.

신라 적석목곽묘 계층화와 의례적 자원 차별화

This study examines the quantitative differences in ritual resources like pottery, ironware, and mound size in the Wooden Chamber Tomb with Stone Mound based on the deceased’s rank. Using the Gini coefficient, ironware (0.90) and mound (0.78) aligned with state formation data, while pottery (0.63) deviated significantly. Hwangnamdaechong stood out with its resource investment, suggesting it’s a unique royal tomb. The deceased were categorized into six ranks using ornaments, revealing a complex relationship between rank and resource investment. The distribution of burial goods in stone chamber wooden coffin tombs wasn’t random but determined by the deceased’s social and vertical position, adhering to societal consensus and ritual norms. This system curbed excessive competition among the living, reinforcing the dominance of the top ruling group. Bonghwangdae and Seobonghwangdae, believed to be tombs of kings(Maripgan), likely had attached chambers and significant pottery and ironware burials.