Tomb Architecture Research Articles

Beyond Stones: A Chronicle of Evolution in Islamic Tomb Architecture in India, Culminating in the Timeless Grandeur of the Taj Mahal

This research paper meticulously traces the evolution of Islamic tomb architecture in India, from its early manifestations to the zenith embodied by the Taj Mahal. Beginning with the construction of the Tomb of Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad (Sultan Ghari) in A.D. 1231, attributed to Shams- ud-Din Iltutmish, the paper unveils the genesis of tomb architecture in India, with distinct elements reflecting Hindu influence. The exploration progresses to Iltutmish's innovative phase, exemplified by the Tomb of Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish (A.D. 1235), strategically positioned near the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. The introduction of the 'squinch' technique exemplifies a pioneering quest for dome construction techniques during this phase. The Tughlaqs' experimental era, witnessed through Ghias ud Din Tughlaq and Firuz Shah Tughlaq's tombs, reveals challenges in achieving widespread appeal due to stunted domes. The Lodis then emerge as pioneers with Sikandar Lodi's Tomb, introducing typological differentiations with octagonal and square plans, catering to distinct societal strata. Key innovations, such as the introduction of the double dome seen in Shihab-ud-din-Taj's tomb and Sikandar Lodi's tomb, become pivotal architectural features, addressing challenges of height and proportions. Regional variations, as seen in the Eklakhi Tomb in Bengal, Ibrahim Rauza reflecting Bahamani style, and Golgumbaz's remarkable square plan, underscore the impact of climatic considerations and regional aesthetics. Culminating in the Taj Mahal, the paper meticulously dissects its architectural features, showcasing the intricate layout, translucent white marble, and innovative use of a double dome. This exploration provides a comprehensive understanding of the cultural, technological, and artistic tapestry that defines Islamic tomb architecture in India. Key Words: Islamic Tomb Architecture, Taj Mahal, Double Dome, Regional Variations

From the Afterlife to Architecture: Tracing the Nexus of Life and Death in Prehistoric, Egyptian, and Japanese Built Environments

This research explores burial architectures in prehistoric, Egyptian, and Japanese civilizations, unveiling a tapestry of practices and cultural implications. Prehistoric societies utilized Portal tombs, Gallery tombs, and Passage graves as repositories, revealing a connection between earthly rituals and cosmic rhythms through dolmens, gallery graves, and aligned passage tombs. Egyptian tomb architecture, from royal pyramids to decorated mastabas, transformed sepulchral temples in Thebes into sacred spaces. Each structure acted as a guardian preserving kings' mummies until souls reunited with earthly remains. The Kofun period in Japan introduced keyhole-shaped earthen tombs, like the Kofun, with complex geometries and symbolic haniwa representations. This period witnessed a cultural shift marked by the 6th-century CE disappearance of Kofun tombs, coinciding with Yamato court reforms and Buddhism's introduction. The exploration of burial architectures across these civilizations reveals an interplay between belief systems and final resting place design, emphasizing each society's spiritual and cultural values. As we journey through these tomb structures, practical considerations for preserving the deceased intertwine with intricate narratives of the living-dead dynamic, offering insights into the cultural tapestry woven by ancient societies. Key Words: Burial Architectures, Cultural Implications, Prehistoric Societies, Egyptian Tomb Architecture, living- Dead Dynamic

Serving the Dead as Serving the Living: Examining the Concept of Burial and Life Consciousness in Medieval China

In the minds of ancient people, tombs and burials were where the lives of this world ended and another type of life began. By incorporating the concepts of life found in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and the widespread belief in ghosts and immortals, burial ceremonies evolved during the Wei and Jin 魏晋 dynasties (220–420) into an integrated and unified notion of burial. The funeral ritual’s imaginative and fanciful depictions of the hereafter express sentimental devotion to life and contemplation of death. The burial ceremony and tomb architecture change in accordance with how the concepts of sacrifice and ghosts develop. The features of people’s belief in ghosts and immortality are reflected in particular burial practices. The popularity of necromancy burials and ghost marriages during the Middle Ages (third to sixth centuries) bring to light the binary antagonism between the soul and the body in burial, as well as the emphasis on spiritual freedom and physical immortality in the life philosophy.

:Architecture in Ancient Central Italy: Connections in Etruscan and Early Roman Building

:<i>Architecture in Ancient Central Italy: Connections in Etruscan and Early Roman Building</i>

Tomb of Tahir Khan Nahar in Sitpur: An Analysis of its Architectural Features and Decorative Elements

The true spirit of people is reflected in the folklore, custom, tradition, art and craft of the region. Punjab (Pakistan) has impressive folk art, diversity of cultural heritage, stunning historic architecture and variety of arts and crafts. It is regarded to be a glimpse into Pakistani culture. The historic tomb of Tahir Khan Nahar is situated in Sitpur, tehsil Alipur built in circa 1520 AD. &#x0D; The tomb of Tahir Khan Nahar is the earliest known pre-Mughal funerary monument created in imitation of the celebrated monument Rukn-i-Alam though having its own personality to be regarded as the first ever attempt to create a local variation of the style, especially for the sake of the design and color of faience and faience-mosaic revetment. This paper examined the architectural design and surface ornamentation, which is lavishly embellished with glazed tile work and other details. This paper further analyses the design elements in detail with reference to tomb architecture in Pakistan.&#x0D; The paper is divided into three parts. First part discussed the historical context of the saint. The second part placed the tomb in its architectural elements and discussed style of its construction. Third part examined the surface decoration of the tomb. The architectural features in relation with the other monuments of the region have been discussed in last part. The paper finally concludes with importance of this historic tomb and impact of cultural influences on tomb architecture.

Notes on Urban Planning, Landscape and Architecture of Nabataean Petra Paradigm

Hellenism was a real cultural force in Nabataean Petra's urban planning and architectural products. Petra is a paradigm of our knowledge of how the Nabataeans designed and built their urban settlement. In approaching the city, one immediately notices how they planned the city to maximise and take advantage of the accessible majestic landscape topography. They created an extraordinary metropolis in the city centre and the surrounding sandstone mountains. There are many aspects of the particularity and creativity of Nabataean culture during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. In the Nabataean Petra paradigm, we can observe the following: cultural interaction, cultural interchange, cultural exchange, cultural adaptation, and cultural sharing, which acted as cultural links between the peoples of the east and west. Thus, creating a new expression and direction of the cultural sharing between the East and West. Metropolitan cities, as in the case of the Nabataean Petra, are focal points where these changes and their effects are experienced significantly.This paper attempts to shed light on the functional, structural, typological, and morphological conceptions and aspects of the urban development and architecture of Nabataean Petra, particularly in the public spaces of the city centre and the surrounding tomb architecture. It argues that this development and formation was the expression of the highly developed self-image of the citizens of Petra reflected in its urban planning, landscape, architecture, and cultural significance.

:Towards A Social Bioarchaeology of the Mycenaean Period: A Biocultural Analysis of Human Remains from the Voudeni Cemetery, Achaea, Greece

:<i>Towards A Social Bioarchaeology of the Mycenaean Period: A Biocultural Analysis of Human Remains from the Voudeni Cemetery, Achaea, Greece</i>

TÜRK İSLAM SANATINDA SANDUKA GELİŞİMİ

Ölüm ve ölüm sonrasında yapılan ritüelleri belirleyen en önemli olgu insanların inançlarıdır. İnanç sistemi, mezar tipini, biçimini, hacmini, bölümlerini belirlediği gibi sanatsal tasarımlarını da belirler. Mezar yapıları, dönemin mimari anlayışını ve sanatsal zevklerini yansıtan önemli belgelerdir. Bu çalışmanın konusunu, mezar yapıları içerisinde gelişimini izlediğimiz sandukalar oluşturmaktadır. Anadolu’da erken dönemlerden itibaren örneklerini gördüğümüz sandukalar, türbe ve kümbetlerde sembolik olarak karşımıza çıkar. Hazire ya da kabristanlarda bulunan sandukalar ise lahit mezar çeşidi olarak tasniflenmiştir. Farklı türde örnekler olmakla birlikte sandukalar; bir kaide üzerine, baş ve ayak bölümleri arasında yükseklik ve genişlik farkı olan, üst bölümü iki yana meyilli formuyla Türk mezar mimarisinde uzun süre kullanılmış ve türbe mimarisinin önemli bir unsuru olmuştur. Sandukalar, süreç içerisinde plan, süsleme ve kütle kompozisyonu yönünden gelişim ve değişim göstermişlerdir. Bu çalışmanın, mezar yapılarında mimari bileşen olan sandukaların kavramsal ve biçimsel gelişimi üzerine yapılan ilk çalışma olması nedeniyle alana katkı sunacağı düşünülmektedir.

Social arrangements. Kinship, descent and affinity in the mortuary architecture of Early Neolithic Britain and Ireland

AbstractThis article reassesses the social significance of Early Neolithic chambered tombs. It critically evaluates inferences about social organization drawn from tomb architecture and interpretations of kinship based on aDNA analyses of human remains from tombs. Adopting the perspective that kinship is a multifaceted and ongoing field of practice, it argues that the arrangement of tomb chambers was related to the negotiation of Early Neolithic kinship. Drawing together inferences about biological relatedness from aDNA analyses with interpretations of chamber arrangements, it suggests that variation in the architectural arrangements and sequential modification of chambered tombs relates to different ways of negotiating aspects of kinship, particularly descent and affinity. It presents interpretations of how kinship was negotiated at Early Neolithic tombs in different regions of Britain and Ireland and concludes that it is increasingly possible to gauge pattern and diversity in Neolithic negotiations of kinship, descent and affinity by combining different strands of evidence, including architectural arrangement.

Palaepaphos-Teratsoudhia Tomb 288 (c. 1650 BC–c. 1200 BC)

This paper presents a new tomb complex of the Late Bronze Age at Palaepaphos-Teratsoudhia in south-west Cyprus. Although looted, Tomb 288 yielded a representative repertoire of funerary gifts, including seals and scarabs, ranging chronologically from the very beginning of the Late Bronze Age to Late Cypriote IIC, roughly from 1650 to 1200 BC. Tomb 288 has characteristics which are typical of Late Bronze Age tomb architecture in Cyprus and well known in the Paphos region, as well as aspects which have not previously been observed in any necropolis of the period, such as the large central “pillars” which support the roof in Chambers A and B. The tomb’s finds comprise representative examples of the ceramic production of Palaepaphos for a period of some 400 years and illustrate the wealth of this region during the whole of the Late Bronze Age. The tomb is a significant addition, in particular, to our knowledge of the earliest phase of the city’s existence, a period which is not adequately known since the focus of recent research has primarily been on the latest phase of the Late Bronze Age and the early part of the Iron Age.

Mortuary Consumption and the Social Function of Stone Vessels in Early Dynastic Egypt

This study examines the social functions of stone vessels in Early Dynastic society through a comparison between tomb architecture and the assemblage of stone vessels. The results demonstrated that the more valuable vessels, consisting of special wares and greenish stone vessels, were mostly restricted to high-status tombs in the Memphite and Abydos regions. This hierarchical structure places the king’s and highest officials’ tombs at the top of the hierarchy. Rulers probably distributed stone vessels to elites as part of their political strategy under the administrative institution and system developed since IIIC2. Furthermore, there are formal sets of stone vessels in elite tombs at provincial sites that are close to the vessel assemblage of the ritual list inscribed on funerary slabs during IIID. This suggests that stone vessels were likely brought to provincial areas to promote the offering ritual to local elites in this period. Thus, stone vessels functioned as a political medium for vertical and horizontal integration.

Introduction and General

Introduction and General Andrew E. Steinmann, Atilla Bodor, Christopher T. Begg, Isaac Kalimi, and Thomas Hieke Andrew E. Steinmann Concordia University Atilla Bodor The Biblicum Christopher T. Begg Catholic University of America Isaac Kalimi Johannes Gutenberg Universität Mainz Thomas Hieke Johannes Gutenberg Universität Mainz 2548. [The Northern Soldiers-Tomb (H11.1) at Asyut] Mohamed Abdelrahiem, The Northern Soldiers-Tomb (H11.1) at Asyut (The Asyut Project 13; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2020). Pp. viii + 109. Paper €34. ISBN 978-3-447-11431-5. Since 2003, the Asyut Project's Egyptian-German team has been working on Gebel Asyut al-gharbi situated close to the modern city of Asyut on the west bank of the Nile in central Egypt. One of the areas investigated is a structure known as the Northern Soldiers-Tomb (H11.1) due to its painted decoration of marching warriors. The tomb has suffered severely from extensive quarrying activities in the past so that today only parts of the walls and the subterranean burial chambers are still preserved. The fieldwork conducted under the auspices of the Asyut Project at the tomb focused on cleaning the inner hall and the shafts, surveying the tomb's decorations and preparing facsimiles as well as plans of the component sections. A.'s short volume presents the results of these activities. In so doing, he provides a thorough description of the tomb's architecture and decoration, details its long research history, and introduces a selection of finds from the tomb that provide evidence of the long-term use of the Asyutian necropolis. Based on the data collected in his work, A. is able to date the tomb to the end of the 11th or the very beginning of the 12th Dynasty and identify its owner as a "nomarch" of Asyut whose name was Djefai-Hapi. A. likewise highlights the tomb's extensive re-use as a burial ground through the centuries: constructed originally during the late Dynasty 11, the tomb houses several shafts and small niches that contain (or once contained) remains of burial equipment from later periods, especially from the Middle Kingdom and Roman-Byzantine times. [Adapted from published abstract] A.'s volume comprises seven brief chapters: (1) Location of the Tomb; (2) Research History of the Tomb; (3) Architectural Features; (4) Representations and Inscriptions; (5) Finds; (6) Dating the Tomb and Identifying the Tomb Owner; and (7) Re-use of the Tomb. These chapters are illustrated with numerous drawings, photos, charts, and maps. The volume's end-matter consists of a bibliography, indexes, and a total of 55 colored plates depicting the tomb's current appearance and a sample of the finds made there.—C.T.B. Google Scholar 2549. [The Laws of Hammurabi] Pamela Barmash, The Laws of Hammurabi at the Confluence of Royal & Scribal Traditions (Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press, 2020). Pp. x + 319. $99. ISBN 978-0-19-752540-1. Since its discovery at the very beginning of the 20th century, the "Code of Hammurabi" has continued to be one of the best known ANE artifactual finds ever made. As B.'s monograph makes clear, however, already in ancient times, the Code had a significant impact on the Mesopotamian legal tradition: synthesizing and elaborating as it did earlier [End Page 940] legal materials, it became a model for subsequent law collections and a resource for the training of aspirant scribes that itself spawned a multi-century commentary literature whose influence made itself felt throughout the wider ANE. B.'s treatment of the Code's multifaceted tradition-history consists of an introduction followed by seven chapters and a conclusion. The chapters are titled, respectively: The Stela of the Laws of Hammurabi and the Representation of Political Power; Royal Legitimation through the Establishment of Justice; The Laws of Hammurabi as a Royal Inscription; Scribes and Statutes (with an Excursus: Scribes and Scribal Education); Adoption in the Laws of Hammurabi; The Legal Authority of the Laws of Hammurabi; and The Afterlife of the Laws of Hammurabi: The Continuation of Scribal Improvisation outside Mesopotamia and the Creation of Commentaries in Mesopotamia. The volume's end-matter features a bibliography and indexes of subjects and authors and of...

The Baigetuobie cemetery: New discovery and human genetic features of Andronovo community’s diffusion to the Eastern Tianshan Mountains (1800–1500 BC)

Andronovo has been regarded as one of the most powerful cultures in Central Asia, which reflected frequent cultural interflow, people migration, and technique diffusion on the Bronze Age Eurasian steppes. In the past decade, many new discoveries in Xinjiang, such as Adunqiaolu and Jartai, have drawn broad attention to the communication of the Andronovo culture in the central Tianshan Mountains. However, systematic study is still insufficient on the communication and influence of the Andronovo culture or the “Andronovo phenomenon” along the Tianshan Mountains. Based on our comprehensive investigation of tomb structure, funeral rituals and assemblages, this article reclassifies relevant Andronovo remains in Xinjiang into five categories. Two categories represented by the Xiabandi cemetery and the Adunqiaolu show clear resemblance to those at Semirech’ye in all aspects, which indicated people in these regions may have maintained close and consistent interaction. Other three categories in the Kuokesuxi and Tangbalesayi cemetery have different tomb structures and funeral rituals from those typical discoveries of the Andronovo cultures in Central Asia in spite of the their similarity in pottery and bronze ornaments, which can be considered as the result of product exchange or technical communication, rather than population migration. New discovery of the Baigetuobie cemetery with evidence of tomb structure, dating, and human genetic features in the Balikun grassland suggested that there might be a small group of people, probably came from the central Tianshan Mountains or Semirech’ye or further west, had migrated to the Eastern Tianshan Mountains about 1600 BC, which was likely facilitated by the relatively warm and humid environment. They had preserved their traditional tomb architecture and were not active in cultural interaction and population fusion with people of Hami Oasis in the south. Due to some reason unknown, people of Baigetuobie had faded away from Balikun grassland after a short time.

Tomb architecture and distribution in the Eastern Necropolis of Nea Paphos, Cyprus

Tomb architecture and distribution in the Eastern Necropolis of Nea Paphos, Cyprus&#x0D; The Eastern necropolis of Nea Paphos is one of the most significant funerary landscapes of Cyprus, primarily because of its connection with the capital of the island during the Hellenistic and Roman times, and therefore of importance for the archaeology of the Eastern Mediterranean. The first systematic exploration of the site took place in the 1980s in the form of rescue excavations. Only limited research has been undertaken since then. This article discusses the necropolis based on unpublished material from the rescue excavations. It presents the tombs’ architecture; partially reconstructs the burial ground; reveals the extension of the necropolis; triggers questions related to the dynamics between nearby necropolis, and its potential correlation to satellite habitation sites.

Women Empowerment through Muslim Architecture Which Built by Name of them in Bangladesh during Mediaeval Period: A Preliminary Survey Report

There are many Muslim architectures built by women patron which called Bibi/Begum in Bangladesh during mediaeval period as Binat Bibi Mosque architecture at Dhaka. It mentioned women's contribution financially. This research paper is trying to show women empowerment through architecture which built by name in Bangladesh during mediaeval era. It is a preliminary qualitative survey report and tries to understand how housewives inspired to makes/commissioned for constructing monuments. Besides, what was the position of them in the Royal court or their society as well as Bibi/Begum contribution in mediaeval Muslim mosque architecture of Bengal and by name monuments of tomb architecture formation?

The Cemeteries of New Orleans: A Cultural History by Peter B. Dedek

Reviewed by: The Cemeteries of New Orleans: A Cultural History by Peter B. Dedek Joy M. Giguere The Cemeteries of New Orleans: A Cultural History. By Peter B. Dedek. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2017. Pp. xiv, 262. $38.00, ISBN 978-0-8071-6610-9.) While the scholarship on cemeteries, burial customs, and grave markers in America has grown dramatically over the last four decades, Peter B. Dedek, in The Cemeteries of New Orleans: A Cultural History, offers a major comprehensive historical analysis of New Orleans's cemetery landscapes, examining "those who designed, built, visited, mourned, and worked in these burial grounds" (p. xi). Drawing on a wealth of primary sources, Dedek traces the parallel development of New Orleans society and its landscapes for the dead. Beginning with the development of the city's first known public burial ground in 1724, six years after the initial settlement in the area by the French, Dedek reveals how, contrary to popular understanding, New Orleanians originally buried their dead belowground in soggy, watery graves. Not until the early nineteenth century, as the population and economic development began to dramatically expand, did residents begin to construct aboveground tombs for the dead in the city's first major Catholic burying ground, St. Louis Cemetery No. 1 (established in 1789). Dedek examines the subsequent development of places of burial to meet periodic public health crises, such as yellow fever epidemics, and to accommodate the rapidly increasing population, exhibiting the ways in which the evolution of the cities of the dead paralleled that of the city of living. Interwoven throughout this history are the lives of those who were instrumental in the design of the cemeteries and of the tombs contained therein, including French architect Jacques Nicolas Bussière de Pouilly, Italian artist Pietro Gualdi, and black Creole tomb builder Florville Foy. In his examination of the pervasiveness of society tombs—tombs established for members of benevolent, fraternal, or labor societies—and emphasis on impermanent tomb or vault rentals, Dedek reveals the collectivist nature of New Orleans burials, which Anglo-Protestants from elsewhere in the country often found shocking and even disturbing. A particular strength of this text is Dedek's emphasis on how the multiethnic influences of the community—French, Spanish, English, Caribbean, African, and Creole—and Old World (stretching back to Roman antiquity) burial [End Page 706] practices determined the styles found in the sepulchral architecture and grave decorations. By providing side-by-side photographs for comparison—including photographs of tombs in Pompeii and nineteenth-century brick tombs in St. Louis Cemetery No. 2, of ancient Roman columbaria next to oven wall vaults from 1830, and of oven vaults in Madrid, Spain, beside oven tombs in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1—Dedek aptly underscores both the geographical and the temporal influences on New Orleans burial practices and tomb architecture, which, when compared with the popularization of architectural revivals across the country during the nineteenth century, reflect the multiculturalism that helped define New Orleans society. Recognizing the long-standing status of New Orleans's cemeteries as tourist attractions, Dedek includes a revealing chapter on the interrelationship between Voodoo beliefs and practices, how they manifested within the cemeteries, and how those associated with the religion, especially famed Voodoo priestess Marie Laveau and her tomb in St. Louis Cemetery No. 1, were at once wildly misunderstood by the general public and irresistible attractions for visitors to the city. His concluding chapter, "Slums of the Dead: Decay and Cemetery Preservation," brings the history of New Orleans's burial places to the present, both analyzing the current state of preservation of these historic sites and calling for greater attention to be paid to the particular problems of protecting these and other historic cemeteries from the vagaries of time, vandalism, and tourism. For those who are unfamiliar with sepulchral architecture and architectural revivalism, Appendix A provides examples of the prevailing types and styles of tombs found in New Orleans cemeteries. Appendix B includes a list with brief histories of more than twenty cemeteries in the city. Altogether, The Cemeteries of New Orleans represents a significant contribution to scholarship on cemeteries, grave marker studies, architectural history, and the social and...

Grabungsvorberichte/Preliminary Excavation Reports: Egyptian Mission Rescue Excavations in Tell el-Retaba. Part 2: The Second Intermediate Period Cemetery

The present article about the first excavated part of an extensive cemetery of the Second Intermediate Period in Tell el-Retaba is one of the outcomes of the scientific co-operation between the Egyptian rescue excavation mission led by M. Nour el-Din and the joint Polish-Slovak archaeological mission in Tell el-Retaba. Seventeen mudbrick tombs dating to the mid – late 15th dynasty were unearthed during two campaigns in 2011– 2012. The tomb architecture and the grave goods found with the buried individuals which are presented in this article offer an insight into the burial customs of the inhabitants of Tell el-Retaba during the end of the Second Intermediate Period. Furthermore, they can help us to shed more light on the settlement history and material culture of this still somewhat controversial period of Egyptian history.

A Systematic Comparison of Material Culture Between Household Floors and Residential Burials in Late Third-Millennium B.C.E. Mesopotamia

www.ajaonline.org A systematic comparison between funerary and house-floor artifacts at the site of Titris Hoyuk in southeastern Turkey demonstrates that an overall sense of domesticity and routine was a large part of residential mortuary practice in Mesopotamia in the late third millennium B.C.E. In particular, this comparative analysis reveals that undecorated, everyday dishes were among the most common grave goods in residential burials, suggesting that repetitious, quotidian activities were the primary focus of mortuary symbolism in these tombs. The living do not seem to have incorporated special material culture when they buried their dead. Whether these artifacts were mortuary gifts or remains of funerary feasts, only ordinary items were placed in the tombs as grave goods. This is consistent with the apparent absence of interest in special embellishment of the corpse or the tomb architecture. The observed patterns include the diminished importance of certain aspects of regular life and the minimized expression of individual identities in the mortuary contexts.1

The Architecture Track of 12th Century Beylikler Period in Balikesir – Oğul Paşa Tomb

Islam dunyasinda olen kisinin cesedi bazi dini kitaplarda belirtilen kurallara bagli kalinarak mezar adi verilen uzeri ortulu cukurda muhafaza edilir. Islam inanisinin Arabistan Yarimadasi’nin disina tasmasi sonunda surec icerisinde (9.yuzyilin yarisindan sonra) Islam Dinini benimseyen Turkler yasadiklari cografi alanlarda cok sayida Turbe yapisi insa etmislerdir. Karahanli Doneminden itibaren karsilasabildigimiz orneklerden bu donem turbelerinin kare formlu plan semasi uzerine kurulan kubik govdeli yapilar oldugu bilinmektedir. Buyuk Selcuklular Donemi’nde plan semasi farklilasan iki katli turbeler insa edildigi karsilastigimiz orneklerden bilinmektedir. Kubik govdeli, silindirik govdeli ve poligonal govdeliler olmak uzere uc tipte insa edilen bu donem turbelerinin mimari ozellikleri Anadolu Selcuklu Turbeleri ile benzerlik gosterirler. Ancak Anadolu Selcuklu Turbeleri bulunduklari cografi alanlardaki kulturel ve cografi farkliliklarin etkisinde kalarak bicim malzeme ve susleme bakimindan Buyuk Selcuklu Donemi turbelerinden farklilasmislardir. Beylikler Donemi’nde turbe mimarisinde yeni arastirmalar ve denemeler yapilmis ve devam eden arastirmalar sonunda Osmanli Donemi’nde turbe mimarisi onemli bir konuma ulasmistir. Bu calismada; Balikesir’in Bigadic Ilcesi’ne bagli Iskelekoy Beldesi’nde bulunan Ogul Pasa Turbesi’nin mimari ozellikleri tespit edilmeye calisilmistir. Kare plan semasina sahip,kubik govdeli turbe, ustte silindir bicimli bir kasnak uzenine oturan icte kubbe ile, dista kiremit kapli kulah ile ortuludur. Yapida kullanilan malzeme, yapim teknigi ve plan semasi dikkate alinarak ait oldugu donem tespit edilmistir. Bu makale, Balikesir Ili, Bigadic Ilcesi, Iskelekoy Beldesi’nde yer alan ve halk arasinda ‘Ogul Pasa’ adiyla anilan turbenin insa edildigi donem ve mimari ozellikleri tespit ederek literature kazandirmayi hedeflemistir.

The rock-cut tomb of Bolores (Torres Vedras): an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the social landscape of the Late Neolithic/Copper Age of the Iberian Peninsula

To better understand the sociopolitical landscape of the Portuguese Estremadura during the Late Neolithic/Copper Age, interdisciplinary excavations were conducted at Bolores (Torres Vedras), in the Sizandro River Valley. Following a test season in 1986, a University of Iowa team conducted four campaigns between 2007 and 2012. Bolores is a rock-cut tomb used primarily between 2800-2600 cal BC for the burial of adults, adolescents, and children (MNI=36). The architectural, material cultural, and bioarchaeological evidence suggests that Bolores housed the remains of a distinctive group of local individuals who marked their difference from other burial populations in the Sizandro and Estremadura through material culture and tomb architecture. Social differences were denoted spatially and through offerings of material goods. No social stratification is evident, however, that would suggest a state-level society: there are no wealthy child burials and no significant health or dietary disparities within this population or between it and others in the region.