TOEFL iBT Research Articles

To be with artificial intelligence in oral test or not to be: a probe into the traces of success in speaking skill, psychological well-being, autonomy, and academic buoyancy

There has been a surge in employing artificial intelligence (AI) in all areas of language pedagogy, not the least among them language testing and assessment. This study investigated the effects of AI-powered tools on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners’ speaking skills, psychological well-being, autonomy, and academic buoyancy. Using a concurrent mixed-methods design, the study included 28 upper-intermediate EFL students from an Ethiopian university. We gave the Michigan Language Proficiency Test to evaluate degrees of proficiency before the TOEFL iBT speaking section, which used ChatGPT for scoring and feedback. Speaking abilities were assessed using pretests, immediate posttests, and delayed posttests. Furthermore, we evaluated the impacts on psychological well-being, autonomy, and academic buoyancy using narrative frames. We used one-way repeated measurements to examine the quantitative data and thematically evaluated the qualitative data. According to the results, speaking abilities, psychological well-being, learner autonomy, and academic buoyancy showed notable increases. The results suggest that by improving skill development, offering individualized feedback, and meeting students' emotional and psychological needs, AI systems like ChatGPT have the capacity to transform language assessment and pedagogy. Encouraging the incorporation of AI technologies to enhance educational outcomes and provide a more flexible and adaptable learning environment, the study presents important implications for various stakeholders.

Diagnosing and promoting learners’ L2 inferential reading development through hybrid computerised dynamic assessment in the Chinese EFL classroom

Dynamic assessment (DA) addresses the limitations of standardised assessments by integrating the understanding and promotion of learners’ emerging abilities during the assessment process for a more comprehensive view of their language performances. However, the conventional interactionist and interventionist DA approaches each have their deficiencies, failing to fulfil both DA practicality and contextualisation in L2 classrooms. Also, there is a scarcity of DA research on exploring learner performances over time. This study aims to address these gaps by putting forward a hybrid computerised dynamic assessment (hybrid C-DA) model implemented as a 7-week pedagogical programme in diagnosing and promoting learners’ L2 inferential reading in the Chinese university EFL classroom. With a quasi-experimental design, two parallel classes of first-year undergraduates participated as the experimental group (n = 34) and the control group (n = 38). Data were collected from participants’ numerical scores in the online pre-test, post-test, intervention tests and transfer tests centring on TOEFL iBT readings. Statistical analysis revealed the effectiveness of hybrid C-DA in promoting learners’ L2 inferential reading abilities as the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group. Within the one-shot hybrid C-DA test, multi-dimensional diagnostic profiles were instantiated through learners’ differentiated responses to mediations and varying mediation levels across question types. Meanwhile, learners’ fluctuated performances across multiple hybrid C-DA tests reflected the non-linear nature of development if viewed dialectically. Overall, we argue that the refined hybrid C-DA model has the capacity to contribute to learners’ L2 development while uncovering fine-grained diagnostic information unobtainable in standardised tests, which significantly informs future L2 instructions.

Which one? AI-assisted language assessment or paper format: an exploration of the impacts on foreign language anxiety, learning attitudes, motivation, and writing performance

In recent years, language practitioners have paid increasing attention to artificial intelligence (AI)’s role in language programs. This study investigated the impact of AI-assisted language assessment on L2 learners’ foreign language anxiety (FLA), attitudes, motivation, and writing skills. The study adopted a sequential exploratory mixed-methods design. Divided between an experimental group (receiving AI-assisted assessment) and a control group (receiving paper-format assessment), the participants were 70 intermediate English learners from two intact university classes in Bangladesh. The TOEFL iBT writing section measured writing skills, while the study also investigated perceptions and experiences of FLA, attitudes, and motivation using narrative frames. Thematic analysis of the narrative data showed that AI-assisted assessment greatly raised learners’ motivation, improved attitudes about language acquisition, and lowered FLA. According to quantitative analysis, the pretest writing abilities across groups showed no appreciable variation. Even though the difference was not statistically significant on the posttest, the experimental group exceeded the control group. The results of this study imply that AI-assisted assessments can generate a helpful learning environment, lower anxiety, improve attitudes, and increase motivation, thereby delivering useful information. Future studies should investigate long-term consequences, and further improvements to AI tools should optimize educational advantages—attitudes, motivation, and writing skills.

Exploring the Predictive Value of Self-Regulation and Thinking Skills on the Writing Performance of Iraqi Advanced EFL Learners on TOEFL iBT

Exploring the Predictive Value of Self-Regulation and Thinking Skills on the Writing Performance of Iraqi Advanced EFL Learners on TOEFL iBT

Metacognitive Knowledge: The Effect of Strategy Evaluation Matrix on University Students’ Reading Comprehension Performance

Understanding written texts is problematic for many university students studying English as a Foreign Language. It is not just about having an extensive vocabulary; students also need tools and strategies to comprehend expository texts. One such tool is the Strategy Evaluation Matrix (SEM), which integrates cognitive strategies and metacognitive knowledge. Research has shown that SEM significantly enhances students' reading comprehension performance. By utilizing SEM, students can improve their understanding of written texts. This study aims to investigate the impact of SEM on students’ reading comprehension performance. To achieve this, a post-test-only nonequivalent control group design was used. Two intact groups from the first semester at the Faculty of Languages, Letters, and Arts, Kenitra, Morocco (FLLAK) were selected. The sample consisted of 66 students in both the control and the experimental groups, using a convenient sampling technique. Data for this study were collected using a TOEFL iBT reading comprehension practice test (i.e. the post-test). Results were analyzed using SPSS version 29 and indicated a significant difference between the experimental and the control groups. Students who were instructed to use SEM while reading and answering comprehension questions scored higher compared to those who did not use it. Therefore, employing SEM in reading comprehension indicates that our educational system should consider integrating psychological tools and theories in the teaching and learning of English as a Foreign Language, specifically in the domain of reading comprehension.

Comparison and Evaluation of TOEFL iBT and ESOL

As two high-stake standardized tests, Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL iBT) and Trinity College ESOL Skills for Life (ESOL) Level 2 have been internationally recognized and used to demonstrate candidates’ English ability in different skills. Drawing from diverse perspectives, this paper undertakes a comparative evaluation of the speaking sections of these two tests and aims to provide insights into how these exams structure their speaking components, the criteria used for evaluation, and how effectively they measure candidates' English communication skills and practical language abilities. By comparing these aspects, the paper presents the similarities and differences of the speaking assessments of the two testing systems and intends to contribute a deeper understanding within these globally recognized exams to educators, test developers, and candidates alike.

The Validity of TOEFL iBT Reading Section: Reassessment and Evaluation

The Validity of TOEFL iBT Reading Section: Reassessment and Evaluation

An Investigation of IELTS and TOEFL iBT Score Compatibility

An Investigation of IELTS and TOEFL iBT Score Compatibility

Authenticity of academic lecture passages in high-stakes tests: A temporal fluency perspective

Corpus-based studies have offered the domain definition inference for test developers. Yet, corpus-based studies on temporal fluency measures (e.g., speech rate) have been limited, especially in the context of academic lecture settings. This made it difficult for test developers to sample representative fluency features to create authentic listening passages. To address this issue, the Fluency Corpus of Academic English Lectures (FCAEL) was created to offer insight into the thresholds for temporal fluency features in academic lecture settings. The current study compared the corpus data to the academic lecture passages in the Test of English as a Foreign Language Internet-based test (TOEFL iBT) and International English Language Testing System (IELTS) to examine the domain definition inference of these tests. In total, 14 temporal fluency measures were examined. A bootstrapped one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), followed by a series of bootstrapped analyses of variances (ANOVAs), independent t-test, and Tukey tests showed some support for the tests, although many limitations were also found. The study suggests the 25th–75th percentile of FCAEL as tentative thresholds for each temporal fluency feature. The proposal may be useful for test developers to create and revise test materials. Coding schemes, analysis codes, and raw corpus data are available on the project’s Open Science Framework page, exemplifying how Open Science can provide benefits beyond the academic community.

Listenership always matters: active listening ability in L2 business English paired speaking tasks

Abstract Active listening, foundational for meaningful social interaction, plays a pivotal role in enhancing interactional competence (IC) during dialogues. Despite its importance, current second language (L2) assessments, such as the TOEFL iBT and the Business English Certificate (BEC) Preliminary, notably does not include active listening in their evaluation metrics. The research presented here contributes significantly to this discourse by foregrounding the imperative of listener responses (LRs) in L2 communication and the diverse interactional functions they serve across different cultures. Notably, variations emerge, with Chinese speakers exhibiting more restrained verbal feedback compared to the more vocally expressive English counterparts. This study stands apart by underscoring the necessity of updating current L2 assessment rubrics, which currently prioritize grammatical proficiency, pronunciation, and vocabulary. By weaving in active listening, assessments can become more holistic, capturing more comprehensively a learner’s L2 interactional ability. Through rigorous quantitative and qualitative methodologies, this investigation probes the influence of active listening on BEC speaking test outcomes. Its findings are poised to revolutionize assessment strategies, urging a more encompassing approach that factors in both verbal and non-verbal cues, thereby reflecting genuine linguistic and interactional competence.

Comparability of reading tasks in high-stakes English proficiency tests and university courses in Korea

With the increased popularity of English-medium instruction (EMI) in higher education, many East Asian universities are using international English proficiency tests to make admissions and placement decisions. Since these tests were not originally designed for the EMI contexts, validity evidence is needed to support the use of these tests in this new context. To interpret performance on a test as representative of performance in a target language use (TLU) domain, this study investigated (1) the characteristics of English reading tasks in Korean EMI undergraduate and graduate courses, (2) the extent to which they are comparable to the characteristics of reading tasks on TOEFL iBT and IELTS, and (3) the extent to which students perceive EMI reading tasks and the test reading tasks to be comparable. Fifty-four undergraduate and graduate students in EMI content courses at a Korean university completed an online questionnaire. Analyses revealed that EMI reading tasks share several characteristics with USA/UK university reading tasks. Although EMI reading tasks had some key characteristics in common with TOEFL and IELTS reading tasks, the test tasks were much more limited in range. Finally, the extent to which students perceived EMI reading tasks and TOEFL/IELTS reading tasks comparable varied across academic areas.

The Intersection of Gender, Culture, and Metacognitive Reading Strategies in Iranian EFL Education: A Mixed-Methods Analysis in Pursuit of Inclusion and Equity

In English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education, metacognitive reading strategies (MRS) play a crucial role in learners' reading comprehension. This mixed-methods study investigated MRS among 178 Iranian EFL learners, focusing on gender and sociocultural dimensions. Utilizing an explanatory sequential design, participants—116 females and 62 males—were randomly sampled from two universities in Neyshabur, Iran. For the quantitative phase, a descriptive-correlational design using the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) and the TOEFL iBT reading section was employed. Descriptive analysis revealed nuanced differences in the use of MRS among Iranian EFL learners across genders, with an overall higher application by females (M = 3.61) compared to males (M = 3.44). In Support Reading Strategies, females demonstrated a higher application of strategies (M = 3.87) compared to males (M = 3.68). For Problem-Solving Strategies, female learners exhibited more frequent usage (M = 3.72) than their male counterparts (M = 3.46). Additionally, in Global Reading Strategies, there is a slight gender differential, with females showing a higher average score (M = 3.37) as opposed to males (M = 3.26). Independent samples t-tests revealed gender-specific differences in the overall MRS application, particularly in the subcategories of support and problem-solving strategies (p < .05), favoring females. In the qualitative phase, 12 participants were purposively sampled for semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis identified gender disparities exacerbated particularly by implicit teacher biases and sociocultural factors. These qualitative results corroborated and enriched the quantitative data, especially regarding gender-specific variations in MRS usage.

The Use of TOEFL iBT® in Admissions Decisions: Stakeholder Perceptions of Policies and Practices

AbstractThis paper reports partial results from a larger study of how three different groups of stakeholders—university admissions officers, faculty in graduate programs involved in admissions decisions, and Intensive English Program (IEP) faculty—interpret and use TOEFL iBT® scores in making admissions decisions or preparing students to meet minimum test score requirements. Our overall goal was to gain a better understanding of the perceived role of English language proficiency in admissions decisions and the internal and external factors that inform decisions about acceptable ways to demonstrate proficiency and minimal standards. To that end, we designed surveys for each stakeholder group that contained questions for all groups and questions specific to each group. This report focuses on the questions that were common to all three groups across two areas: (1) understandings of and participation in institutional policy making around English language proficiency tests and (2) knowledge of and attitudes toward the TOEFL iBT test itself. Our results suggested that, as predicted, university admissions staff were the most aware of and involved in policy making but frequently consulted with ESL experts such as IEP faculty when setting policies. This stakeholder group was also the most knowledgeable about the TOEFL iBT test. Faculty in graduate programs varied in their understanding of and involvement in policy making and reported the least familiarity with the test. However, they reported that more information about many aspects of the test would help them make better admissions decisions. The results of the study add to the growing literature on language assessment literacy among various stakeholder groups, especially in terms of identifying aspects of assessment literacy that are important to different groups of stakeholders.

Memorizing and fabricating? Uncovering online writing test preparation

With high-stakes decisions relying on standardized language tests (Chapelle, 2021a), many test takers seek test preparation from commercial ‘cram schools’, including TOEFL iBT writing (E.-Y. J. Kim, 2017; S. Kim, 2021). Despite a $1.2 billion market for online test preparation courses in Korea, previous studies have primarily focused on in-person classes through interviews and surveys, neglecting online courses. This study analyzed ten prerecorded online lectures from two popular cram schools, applying Messick’s (1982) taxonomy of test preparation to code instructional content. The analysis revealed that three types of instructional activities: three Type 1 (enhancing construct-relevant factors), four Type 2 (reducing construct-irrelevant factors), and four Type 3 (enhancing construct-irrelevant factors) test preparation activities were identified. Type 1 activities primarily covered vocabulary, grammar, and organizational patterns. Type 2 focused on teaching test formats, TOEFL trends, time management, and topic choice. Type 3 addressed templates, fabricating examples, gaming the scoring system, and cramming tips. Notably, students were encouraged to utilize memorized templates and fabricate examples. However, these practices may undermine support for the explanation and consequence implication inferences of the validity argument of TOEFL iBT. This study provides valuable insights into language testing preparation, applicable to various contexts with different tests.

Exploring The Potential of Microlearning for Toefl Ibt Preparation Among High School Students

The aim of this needs analysis is to investigate the potential of microlearning as a learning approach to prepare high school students for the TOEFL iBT. Microlearning is an instructional method that involves brief participation in an activity that is intended to yield a specific result. While prior research has shown its benefits in encouraging independent learning, reducing mental fatigue, and preventing demotivation and cognitive impairments, most studies have focused on adult learners, with only a small fraction conducted in high school settings. In Indonesia, certificates of English aptitude tests, such as TOEFL iBT, are necessary for higher education and job applications. However, the topic and skills are rarely discussed in schools, resulting in many high school graduates being unprepared for the exam. Typically, students resort to private institutions or tutors to acquire the necessary skills, but the associated costs and time commitment can be discouraging. Therefore, it is essential to examine the perceived importance of TOEFL iBT, learning difficulties, and learning preferences. The findings will inform recommendations on integrating microlearning into the existing educational framework. Future studies should explore microlearning themes further, expand research to high school context, and explore mobile-based microlearning.

Task-supported language instruction in an EFL context: impacts on academic buoyancy, self-esteem, creativity, and language achievement

Over the past few years, there has been an increasing focus on innovative approaches to language instruction in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) contexts. Task-supported language Instruction (TSLI) has emerged as one such approach. While previous research has demonstrated the effectiveness of TSLI in improving language proficiency, its broader impact on learners' psychological and academic development remains relatively unexplored. This mixed-methods study aimed to investigate the effects of TSLI on academic buoyancy, self-esteem, creativity, and language achievement among 20 Iranian EFL participants. Semi-structured interviews were employed to measure academic buoyancy, self-esteem, and creativity qualitatively, while language achievement was assessed using the TOEFL iBT test. The study revealed that TSLI positively influenced academic buoyancy, fostering resilience and adaptive coping strategies among participants. Moreover, it significantly enhanced learners' self-esteem, promoting a positive and confident self-perception in their language abilities. Additionally, TSLI was found to facilitate creativity in the language learning process, encouraging imaginative thinking and creative expression in learners’ language use. Furthermore, the participants demonstrated improved language achievement after engaging in TSLI. The study's findings highlight the multifaceted impact of TSLI on various dimensions of language learning and learners’ overall experiences, underscoring the significance of learner-centered language instructional approaches in EFL contexts. The implications of this research contribute to the development of more effective and inclusive language instruction methods that enhance learners' academic buoyancy, self-esteem, creativity, and language achievement.

Program Evaluation and Triangulation: What Three Data Sets Show about How Participants Respond to the Course Teaching Academic English with the TOEFL iBT® Test

Drawing from a larger CIPP program evaluation (Context, Input, Processes, Products) comprised of 11 analyses of the ETS online teacher training course titled Teaching Academic English with the TOEFL iBT® Test (TAE), this paper triangulates three qualitatively different data sets and seeks to understand how participants responded to the TAE course. The research team considered self-reported data (closed- and open-answer survey questions), engagement data, and learning data. The self-reported data were strongly positive and illustrated the value participants reported having about the course content, especially ETS-created materials. Some gaps were indicated: calls were made for more materials—especially additional resources participants could use when teaching—and for increased interactions during the course workshop. In partial juxtaposition, the engagement data indicated that participants were engaging the course less than anticipated. The learning data simultaneously indicated that some assessments were quite easy for participants while elsewhere participants did not have the desired uptake of some topics. Viewing the three data sets together, the research team arrived at a more nuanced conclusion: despite participant satisfaction, development processes should continue, to ensure the highest quality teacher training program possible, in terms of its content, resources, and interactions.

Revisiting raters’ accent familiarity in speaking tests: Evidence that presentation mode interacts with accent familiarity to variably affect comprehensibility ratings

This controlled experimental study investigated the interaction of variables associated with rating the pronunciation component of high-stakes English-language-speaking tests such as IELTS and TOEFL iBT. One hundred experienced raters who were all either familiar or unfamiliar with Brazilian-accented English or Papua New Guinean Tok Pisin-accented English, respectively, were presented with speech samples in audio-only or audio-visual mode. Two-way ordinal regression with post hoc pairwise comparisons found that the presentation mode interacted significantly with accent familiarity to increase comprehensibility ratings (χ² = 88.005, df = 3, p < .0001), with presentation mode having a stronger effect in the interaction than accent familiarity (χ² = 59.328, df = 1, p < .0001). Based on odds ratios, raters were significantly more likely to score comprehensibility higher when the presentation mode was audio-visual (compared to audio-only) for both the unfamiliar (91% more likely) and familiar speakers (92.3% more likely). The results suggest that semi-direct speaking tests using audio-only or audio-visual modes of presentation should be evaluated through research to ascertain how accent familiarity and presentation mode interact to variably affect comprehensibility ratings. Such research may be beneficial to investigate the virtual modes of speaking test delivery that have emerged post-COVID-19.

Idea Sharing Crafting Item Difficulty in TOEFL iBT Listening Tests

Idea Sharing Crafting Item Difficulty in TOEFL iBT Listening Tests

Practical considerations when building concordances between English tests

Applicants must often demonstrate adequate English proficiency when applying to postsecondary institutions by taking an English language proficiency test, such as the TOEFL iBT, IELTS Academic, or Duolingo English Test (DET). Concordance tables aim to provide equivalent scores across multiple assessments, helping admissions officers to make fair decisions regardless of the test that an applicant took. We present our approaches to addressing practical (i.e., data collection and analysis) challenges in the context of building concordance tables between overall scores from the DET and those from the TOEFL iBT and IELTS Academic tests. We summarize a novel method for combining self-reported and official scores to meet recommended minimum sample sizes for concordance studies. We also evaluate sensitivity of estimated concordances to choices about how to (a) weight the observed data to the target population; (b) define outliers; (c) select appropriate pairs of test scores for repeat test takers; and (d) compute equating functions between pairs of scores. We find that estimated concordance functions are largely robust to different combinations of these choices in the regions of the proficiency distribution most relevant to admissions decisions. We discuss implications of our results for both test users and language testers.