Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire Research Articles

0120 Interactions between Temperament and Parent-Child Relationship Quality in Early Childhood and Sleep in Middle Childhood

Abstract Introduction Effects of child temperament on biopsychosocial outcomes, including sleep, are known to differ based on parent-child relationship quality (PCRQ). However, previous studies have primarily focused solely on early childhood, relied on subjective reports of PCRQ and sleep, and have neglected to examine variability in sleep, which is an important dimension of sleep health. We examined whether there were interactions between temperament and objectively measured PCRQ during early childhood in association with actigraphy measured sleep (average and variability) in middle childhood. Methods Participants included 90 preschoolers (mean age=4.24 years, SD=0.81) who were 47% female; 37% White, 17% Black, 47% other racial groups; and 46% Hispanic. Thirty-four percent experienced moderate to severe maltreatment. PCRQ was coded from a video-recorded free-play task between each child and their primary caregiver. Child temperament dimensions including Activity Level, Anger, Social Fear, Inhibitory Control, and Appropriate Attentional Allocation were measured with the parent-report Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire. Child Mean and SDs of total sleep time (TST) and sleep efficiency (SE) were generated from actigraphy data collected for two weeks during a follow-up study when participants were ages 8-11. Results There were no direct effects of any of the temperament variables or PCRQ on sleep. In models adjusted for demographic characteristics and number of adversities experienced, greater attentional allocation was associated with greater average TST only among those children high in PCRQ (estimate = 20.59, 95% CI = 5.19, 35.99). For every one unit increase in attentional allocation score (possible range 1:7), there is a more than 20 min increase in mean TST. In contrast, greater activity levels were associated with better average sleep efficiency, only among those low in PCRQ (estimate = 2.35, 95% CI = 0.46, 4.24). For each unit increase in activity level score, there was a 2% increase in sleep efficiency. Conclusion Findings extend cross-sectional research in early childhood and provide support for models showing that children have differing susceptibility to the effects of temperament on sleep, depending on PCRQ. Support (if any) NIMH R01 MH083704, NICHD R01 HD086487, NICHD, R01 HD095837, SRCD Small Grant for Early Career Scholars, T32HD101392, NIGMS P20 GM139767.

Bi-directional relations between attention and social fear across the first two years of life

This study examined longitudinal relations between attention and social fear across the first two years of life. Our sample consisted of 357 infants and their caregivers across three sites. Data was collected at 4, 8, 12, 18, and 24 months of age. At all 5 assessments, the infants participated in 2 eye-tracking tasks (Vigilance and Overlap) which measured different components of attention bias (orientation, engagement, and disengagement), and parents completed questionnaires assessing infant temperament. For the first three assessments, social fear was measured using the Infant Behavioral Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R; Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003) focused on interactions with strangers, and for the final two time points, we used the social fearfulness subscale on the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ; Goldsmith, 1996). The results of a random intercept cross-lagged panel model showed intermittent evidence of uni-directional and reciprocal relations between attention to both threatening and positive emotion facial configurations and social fear. Our findings suggest that characteristics of behaviorally inhibited temperament–in this case, social fear–begin to interact with attention biases to emotion in the very first year of life, which carries implications for the timing of future interventions designed to mitigate the early development of maladaptive patterns of attention.

Effects of Omega-3-6-9 fatty acid supplementation on behavior and sleep in preterm toddlers with autism symptomatology: Secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial

BackgroundChildren born extremely preterm disproportionately experience sequelae of preterm birth compared to those born at later gestational ages, including higher prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and associated behaviors. AimExplore effects of combined dietary docosahexaenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and oleic acid (omega 3-6-9) on caregiver-reported behavior and sleep in toddlers born at ≤29 weeks' gestation who were exhibiting symptoms commonly seen with ASD. Study design90-day randomized (1:1), double blinded, placebo-controlled trial. SubjectsThirty-one children aged 18–38 months received omega 3-6-9 (n = 15) or canola oil placebo (n = 16). Outcome MeasuresMixed effects regression analyses followed intent to treat and explored treatment effects on measures of caregiver-reported behavior (Child Behavior Checklist 1.5–5, Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire – Short Form, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 2nd Edition) and sleep (Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire, Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire). ResultsTwenty-nine of 31 (94%; ntx = 13, nplacebo = 16) children randomized had data available for at least one outcome measure, 27 (87%; ntx = 12, nplacebo = 15) had complete outcome data. Children randomized to omega 3-6-9 experienced a medium magnitude benefit of supplementation on anxious and depressed behaviors (ΔDifference = −1.27, d = −0.58, p = 0.049) and internalizing behaviors (ΔDifference = −3.41, d = −0.68, p = 0.05); and a large magnitude benefit on interpersonal relationship adaptive behaviors (ΔDifference = 7.50, d = 0.83, p = 0.01), compared to placebo. No effects were observed on other aspects of behavior or sleep. ConclusionsFindings provide preliminary support for further exploration of omega 3-6-9 during toddlerhood to improve socioemotional outcomes among children born preterm, especially for those showing early symptoms commonly seen with ASD. Results need to be replicated in a larger sample. Trial registrationRegistered with ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01683565.

Disentangling the Direction of Associations between Sleep and Temperament in Toddlers

ABSTRACT Objectives/Background Although much research has investigated the associations between children’s sleep and their temperament, the direction of these associations remains unclear, largely due to a lack of longitudinal studies with repeated assessments of both sleep and temperament. Aiming to clarify the temporal precedence of these two constructs, the current study investigated reciprocal associations between toddlers’ sleep and temperament with a longitudinal design. Participants The sample consisted of 82 toddlers (39 girls) assessed twice. Methods At both 2 (M = 25.23 months; SD = 1.11) and 3 years of age (M = 36.81 months; SD = 0.91), toddlers’ sleep duration and quality were assessed using actigraphy and their temperament was reported by their mothers with the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire. Results Shorter nighttime sleep duration (ß = − .28, p = .03) and lower sleep efficiency (ß = − .33, p = .01) at 2 years predicted more temperamental proneness to anger at 3 years, while greater temperamental social fear at 2 years was predictive of shorter 24-hour (ß = − .44, p = .02) and nighttime (ß = − .36, p = .04) sleep duration at 3 years. Associations between temperamental activity level and sleep variables were non-significant. Conclusion The direction of the associations between toddlers’ sleep and their temperament may vary according to which dimension of temperament is considered. These findings should encourage practitioners to identify the beginning of the causal chain leading to sleep or temperamental difficulties so as to develop well-tailored intervention plans.

Child temperamental anger, mother–child interactions, and socio-emotional functioning at school entry

This study investigated the role of temperamental anger in toddlerhood in the prediction of child socio-emotional functioning at school entry and the moderating function of mother–child interactions in these predictive associations. The sample included 86 children. To assess child temperamental anger, mothers and fathers completed the Anger proneness scale of the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire when children were aged 2 years. The quality of mother–child interactions was also assessed when children were 2 years old with the Mutually Responsive Orientation scale. Child internalizing, externalizing and prosocial behaviors were reported by parents in kindergarten and first grade with the Child Behavior Checklist and the Socio-Affective Profile. The results indicated that anger proneness predicted higher internalizing and externalizing behavior, and lower prosocial behavior. In the case of internalizing behavior, the effect of anger was qualified by an interaction with the quality of mother–child interaction: anger proneness predicted higher internalizing behavior only among children who had higher-quality interactions with their mothers. These findings suggest that simultaneous consideration of temperament and parent–child relationships early on in development may help identify children at risk for experiencing adjustment difficulties at school entry, allowing for prompt intervention before difficulties crystallize.

Temperament, parental personality and parenting stress in relation to socio-emotional development at 51 months

ABSTRACTThis study examined the relevance of infant temperament, parent personality and parenting stress for children’s socio-emotional development, looking in addition for any differences between mothers and fathers. Participants, from a community sample, were 410 mothers and fathers reporting their personality (NEO Personality Inventory), child temperament in the first (Infant Characteristics Questionnaire) and second (Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire) years, parenting stress to 36 months (Parenting Stress Index Short Form) and child behaviour at 51 months (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire). Difficult toddler temperament was associated with more externalizing and internalizing problems. Higher paternal extraversion was associated with more prosocial behaviour whereas lower maternal extraversion was associated with more internalizing problems. For both parents, describing a dysfunctional parent–child relationship was related to more externalizing problems and to less prosocial behaviour, for fathers also to more internalizing problems, which associated for mothers with more parental distress.

Prenatal phthalate exposures and child temperament at 12 and 24 months

IntroductionGestational phthalate exposures have been adversely associated with attention, externalizing, and internalizing behaviors in childhood. Early childhood temperament may be a marker of later behavioral patterns. We therefore sought to determine whether gestational phthalate exposures were associated with infant and toddler temperament. MethodsThe Mount Sinai Children’s Environmental Health Study is a prospective cohort study of children born between May 1998 and July 2001 in New York City (N=404). Phthalate metabolites were measured in spot urine samples collected from pregnant women in their third trimester. Child temperament was assessed by parental report at 12-months using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ) (N=204) and at 24-months using the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ) (N=279). We used multiple linear regression to evaluate associations between urinary phthalate metabolites and eleven temperament domains. ResultsPhthalate biomarker concentrations were weakly associated with lower gross motor activity levels as well as higher duration of orienting at the 12-month assessment. Mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP), monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) and the sum of metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (∑DEHP) were associated with lower levels of smiling and laughing at 12 months. At 24-months, social fear and lower pleasure was linked to higher concentrations of MCPP and MBzP, and higher ∑DEHP was weakly associated with increased anger levels at 24-months. ConclusionsThough we observed some weak associations between biomarkers of prenatal exposure to phthalates and temperament at 12- and 24-months, overall phthalates biomarkers were not strongly associated with alterations in temperament.

Temperament and its Association with Autism Symptoms in a High-risk Population.

Temperament was investigated in a group of high-risk infants (N = 383; 45% girls) who had an older sibling with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and in community control infants (N = 162; 46% girls) with no family history of ASD (low-risk). The infants were assessed at age 12months using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire, and at 24months using the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire. At 36months, an independent blind diagnostic assessment for ASD was conducted using the Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R) and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). The results indicate not only differences in temperament traits between the high- and low-risk groups, but also differences in the structure of higher-order temperament factors. The results support the importance of early reactive temperament in the development of Effortful Control in the high-risk sample. Furthermore, Effortful Control at 24months appears to play a critical role in predicting later ASD symptoms (at 36months). Taken together, these findings support the use of early temperament as an endophenotype for ASD.

Positive affect: phenotypic and etiologic associations with prosocial behaviors and internalizing problems in toddlers.

Despite evidence for the associations of positive affect to prosocial behaviors and internalizing problems, relatively little is known about the underlying etiology. The sample comprised over 300 twin pairs at age 3. Positive affect, prosocial behaviors, and internalizing problems were assessed using the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (Goldsmith, 1996), the Revised Rutter Parent Scale for Preschool Children (Hogg et al., 1997), and the Child Behavior Checklist for ages 1.5–5 (Achenbach, 1991), respectively. Positive affect correlated positively with prosocial behaviors, and negatively with internalizing problems. Prosocial behaviors were negatively associated with internalizing problems. The relations of positive affect to prosocial behaviors and internalizing problems were due to environmental effects (shared and non-shared). In contrast, the link between prosocial behaviors and internalizing problems was entirely explained by genetic effects. The current study has moved beyond prior emphasis on negative affect and elucidated the less understood etiology underlying the associations between positive affect, prosocial behaviors, and internalizing problems. This study could guide the development of programs for promoting prosocial behaviors and alleviating internalizing problems in children.

Differential stability of temperament and personality from toddlerhood to middle childhood

This prospective, longitudinal investigation examined differential consistency of three core dimensions of individuality from toddlerhood through middle childhood. Data came from 273 families who participated with their child at least once during three developmental periods: toddlerhood (2 years), early childhood (3–5 years), and middle childhood (6–10 years). Both mothers and fathers reported on attributes of their child using subscales from the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire, the Child Behavior Questionnaire, and the Iowa Personality Questionnaire. Reports were used as indicators of the latent “Big Three” dimensions of positive emotionality, negative emotionality, and constraint at each of the three developmental periods. Results pointed to consistency in these broad dimensions of temperament and personality from toddlerhood to middle childhood.

Predicting Preschool Cognitive Development from Infant Temperament, Maternal Sensitivity, and Psychosocial Risk

This longitudinal study investigated the relative contributions of infant temperament, maternal sensitivity, and psychosocial risk to individual differences in preschool children's cognitive development. It also examined specific moderating effects between predictors as well as the specific mediating role of maternal sensitivity in the relation between psychosocial risk and children's cognitive development. A mixed sample comprising 27 low-risk (i.e., adult mothers) and 62 high-risk (i.e., adolescent mothers) mother-child dyads was evaluated at home on five occasions. At 6 and 10 months, infants' cognitive development was assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) (Bayley, 1993). At 15 and 18 months, mothers completed Goldsmith's (1996) Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ), and observers completed Pederson and Moran's (1995) Maternal Behavior Q-Sort. At 36 months, preschoolers' cognitive development was reassessed using the BSID. Results showed that controlling for infant mental development scores, all three classes of variables contributed to differences in cognitive functioning. Psychosocial risk moderated the relations between interest persistence and preschooler cognitive development, and the

Toddler and childhood temperament: expanded content, stronger genetic evidence, new evidence for the importance of environment.

Using samples of twins and singletons totaling 715 individuals, the authors document heritable influences on various temperamental dimensions during the toddler and preschooler age ranges, which have been somewhat understudied relative to infants and older adolescents. In contrast to instruments on which prior literature is based, the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire and the Children's Behavior Questionnaire offer assessment of positive affectivity (separately from negative affectivity) and of emotional regulation. Positive affect reveals substantial shared environmental influence, and emotion regulation reveals additive genetic influence. Evidence for genetic variance in temperament is strengthened because intraclass correlations from many of these questionnaire scales show no evidence of "too-low" dizygotic correlations that imply contrast effects. Suggestive evidence is offered that psychometric characteristics of the questionnaires can affect biometric inferences.

Toddler and childhood temperament: Expanded content, stronger genetic evidence, new evidence for the importance of environment.

Using samples of twins and singletons totaling 715 individuals, the authors document heritable influences on various temperamental dimensions during the toddler and preschooler age ranges, which have been somewhat understudied relative to infants and older adolescents. In contrast to instruments on which prior literature is based, the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire and the Children's Behavior Questionnaire offer assessment of positive affectivity (separately from negative affectivity) and of emotional regulation. Positive affect reveals substantial shared environmental influence, and emotion regulation reveals additive genetic influence. Evidence for genetic variance in temperament is strengthened because intraclass correlations from many of these questionnaire scales show no evidence of "too-low" dizygotic correlations that imply contrast effects. Suggestive evidence is offered that psychometric characteristics of the questionnaires can affect biometric inferences.

Studying Temperament via Construction of the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire

The Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire (TBAQ) was constructed by an iterative process of item generation intended to ensure content validity, by repeated item analyses focused on internal consistency and discriminant properties, and by scale revision. During the construction and initial validation processes reported in this article, data from 1,012 records were utilized. Internal consistency reliability estimates typically exceeded .80 for each scale. Evidence for convergent validity with other temperament questionnaires and for longitudinal stability was also obtained. Besides yielding a promising instrument, this assessment research has conceptual ramifications. For instance, components of negative affectivity (anger proneness and fearfulness) were independent, and item analyses suggested that shyness and other fears were independent as well. Consistent with most current views of temperament, the TBAQ temperament scales revealed some relationship and/or contextual specificity, as exemplified by the finding of only moderate parental agreement. The rank ordering on most temperament dimensions was impressively preserved from age 12 months, when the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ) was used, to age 18 months, when the TBAQ was used (especially when subtle differences between the IBQ and TBAQ were taken into account). Most of the analyses benefit from replication.

Studying Temperament via Construction of the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire

Studying Temperament via Construction of the Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire