Tissue-engineered Cartilage Constructs Research Articles

Development of embedded bioprinting for fabricating zonally stratified articular cartilage

Embedded bioprinting enables direct deposition of bioinks in three dimensions inside a support bath with shear-thinning and self-healing capabilities, and it has been used to fabricate complex tissues and organs for several biomedical applications. In this study, a support bath comprising gelatin/alginate microparticles and oxidized alginate solution was developed and crosslinked in situ with carbonyl hydrazide-modified gelatin bioink via the Schiff base reaction. The numerical model of embedded printing was established to analyze the extrusion process and disturbance of the support bath. The process window (e.g., extrusion pressure, nozzle moving speed, nozzle size, and support bath composition) was established experimentally to ensure stable fiber formation. In addition, the compressive modulus of the printed construct has been reinforced due to the formation of interpenetrating polymer networks in the microparticles. Based on the process investigation, a zonally stratified artificial cartilage with a three-layered structure was designed: vertically printed fibers in the bottom, oblique fibers in the middle, and horizontally printed fibers in the superficial layer. The bioprinted cartilage supported cell survival, proliferation, and spreading, with the observed deposition of cartilage-specific proteins, offering a new strategy for developing tissue-engineered cartilage constructs with biological and histological relevance.

Biofabrication of Tissue-Engineered Cartilage Constructs Through Faraday Wave Bioassembly of Cell-Laden Gelatin Microcarriers.

Acoustic biofabrication is an emerging strategy in tissue engineering due to its mild and fast manufacturing process. Herein, tissue-engineered cartilage constructs with high cell viability are fabricated from cell-laden gelatin microcarriers (GMs) through Faraday wave bioassembly, a typical acoustic "bottom-up" manufacturing process. Assembly modules are first prepared by incorporating cartilage precursor cells, the chondrogenic cell line ATDC5, or bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs), into GMs. Patterned structures are formed by Faraday wave bioassembly of the cell-laden GMs. Due to the gentle and efficient assembly process and the protective effects of microcarriers, cells in the patterned structures maintain high activity. Subsequently, tissue-engineered cartilage constructs are obtained by inducing cell differentiation of the patterned structures. Comprehensive evaluations are conducted to verify chondrocyte differentiation and the formation of cartilage tissue constructs in terms of cell viability, morphological analysis, gene expression, and matrix production. Finally, implantation studies with a rat cartilage defect model demonstrate that these tissue-engineered cartilage constructs are beneficial for the repair of articular cartilage damage in vivo. This study provides the first biofabrication of cartilage tissue constructs using Faraday wave bioassembly, extending its application to engineering tissues with a low cell density.

Glycosaminoglycan-Mediated Interactions in Articular, Auricular, Meniscal, and Nasal Cartilage.

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are ubiquitous components in the cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM). Ultrastructural arrangement of ECM and GAG-mediated interactions with collagen are known to govern the mechanics in articular cartilage, but these interactions are less clear in other cartilage types. Therefore, this article reviews the current literature on ultrastructure of articular, auricular, meniscal, and nasal septal cartilage, seeking insight into GAG-mediated interactions influencing mechanics. Ultrastructural features of these cartilages are discussed to highlight differences between them. GAG-mediated interactions are reviewed under two categories: interactions with chondrocytes and interactions with other fibrillar macromolecules of the ECM. Moreover, efforts to replicate GAG-mediated interactions to improve mechanical integrity of tissue-engineered cartilage constructs are discussed. In conclusion, studies exploring cartilage specific GAGs are poorly represented in the literature, and the ultrastructure of nasal septal and auricular cartilage is less studied compared with articular and meniscal cartilages. Understanding the contribution of GAGs in cartilage mechanics at the ultrastructural level and translating that knowledge to engineered cartilage will facilitate improvement of cartilage tissue engineering approaches.

Co-culture of RhoA-overexpressed microtia chondrocytes and adipose-derived stem cells in the construction of tissue-engineered ear-shaped cartilage.

Microtia is a congenital auricle dysplasia with a high incidence and tissue engineering technology provides a promising strategy to reconstruct auricles. We previously described that the engineered cartilage constructed from microtia chondrocytes exhibited inferior levels of biochemical and biomechanical properties, which was proposed to be resulted of the decreased migration ability of microtia chondrocytes. In the current study, we found that Rho GTPase members were deficient in microtia chondrocytes. By overexpressing RhoA, Rac1, and CDC42, respectively, we further demonstrated that RhoA took great responsibility for the decreased migration ability of microtia chondrocytes. Moreover, we constructed PGA/PLA scaffold-based cartilages to verify the chondrogenic ability of RhoA overexpressed microtia chondrocytes, and the results showed that overexpressing RhoA was of limited help in improving the quality of microtia chondrocyte engineered cartilage. However, coculture of adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) significantly improved the biochemical and biomechanical properties of engineered cartilage. Especially, coculture of RhoA overexpressed microtia chondrocytes and ADSCs produced an excellent effect on the wet weight, cartilage-specific extracellular matrix, and biomechanical property of engineered cartilage. Furthermore, we presented that coculture of RhoA overexpressed microtia chondrocytes and ADSCs combined with human ear-shaped PGA/PLA scaffold and titanium alloy stent fabricated by CAD/CAM and 3D printing technology effectively constructed and maintained auricle structure in vivo. Collectively, our results provide evidence for the essential role of RhoA in microtia chondrocytes and a developed strategy for the construction of patient-specific tissue-engineered auricular cartilage.

Microscale strain concentrations in tissue-engineered osteochondral implants are dictated by local compositional thresholds and architecture

Tissue-engineered osteochondral implants manufactured from condensed mesenchymal stem cell bodies have shown promise for treating focal cartilage defects. Notably, such manufacturing techniques have shown to successfully recapture the bulk mechanical properties of native cartilage. However, the relationships among the architectural features, local composition, and micromechanical environment within tissue-engineered cartilage from cell-based aggregates remain unclear. Understanding such relationships is crucial for identifying critical parameters that can predict in vivo performance. Therefore, this study investigated the relationship among architectural features, composition, and micromechanical behavior of tissue-engineered osteochondral implants. We utilized fast-confocal microscopy combined with a strain mapping technique to analyze the micromechanical behavior under quasi-static loading, as well as Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy to analyze the local compositions. More specifically, we investigated the architectural features and compositional distributions generated from tissue maturation, along with macro- and micro-level strain distributions. Our results showed that under compression, cell-based aggregates underwent deformation followed by body movement, generating high local strain around the boundaries, where local aggrecan concentration was low and local collagen concentration was high. By analyzing the micromechanics and composition at the single aggregate length scale, we identified a strong threshold relationship between local strain and compositions. Namely at the aggrecan concentration below 0.015 arbitrary unit (A.U.) and the collagen concentration above 0.15 A.U., the constructs experienced greater than threefold increase in compressive strain. Overall, this study suggests that local compositional features are the primary driver of the local mechanical environment in tissue-engineered cartilage constructs, providing insight into potential quality control parameters for manufacturing tissue-engineered constructs.

Engineered biomechanical microenvironment of articular chondrocytes based on heterogeneous GelMA hydrogel composites and dynamic mechanical compression

Tissue-engineered articular cartilage constructs are currently not able to equal native tissues in terms of mechanical and biological properties. A major cause lies in the deficiency in engineering the biomechanical microenvironment (BMME) of articular chondrocytes. In this work, to engineer the BMME of articular chondrocytes, heterogeneous hydrogel structures of gelatin methacrylated (GelMA) containing differential-stiffness domains were first fabricated, and then periodic dynamic mechanical stimulations were applied to the hydrogel structures. The chondrocyte phenotype of ATDC5 cells was enhanced as the spatial differentiation in stiffness was increased in the hydrogel structures and was further strengthened by dynamic mechanical stimulation. It was speculated that the mechanical signals generated by the engineered BMME were sensed by the cells through the integrin β1-FAK signaling pathway. This study revealed the key role of the combined effects of differential and dynamic BMME on the chondrocyte phenotype, which could provide theoretical guidance for highly active tissue-engineered articular cartilage.

Red blood cell exposure increases chondrocyte susceptibility to oxidative stress following hemarthrosis

The detrimental effects of blood exposure on articular tissues are well characterized, but the individual contributions of specific whole blood components are yet to be fully elucidated. Better understanding of mechanisms that drive cell and tissue damage in hemophilic arthropathy will inform novel therapeutic strategies. The studies here aimed to identify the specific contributions of intact and lysed red blood cells (RBCs) on cartilage and the therapeutic potential of Ferrostatin-1 in the context of lipid changes, oxidative stress, and ferroptosis. Changes to biochemical and mechanical properties following intact RBC treatment were assessed in human chondrocyte-based tissue-engineered cartilage constructs and validated against human cartilage explants. Chondrocyte monolayers were assayed for changes to intracellular lipid profiles and the presence of oxidative and ferroptotic mechanisms. Markers of tissue breakdown were observed in cartilage constructs without parallel losses in DNA (control: 786.3 (102.2) ng/mg; RBCINT: 751 (126.4) ng/mg; P=0.6279), implicating nonlethal chondrocyte responses to intact RBCs. Dose-dependent loss of viability in response to intact and lysed RBCs was observed in chondrocyte monolayers, with greater toxicity observed with lysates. Intact RBCs induced changes to chondrocyte lipid profiles, upregulating highly oxidizable fatty acids (e.g., FA 18:2) and matrix disrupting ceramides. RBC lysates induced cell death via oxidative mechanisms that resemble ferroptosis. Intact RBCs induce intracellular phenotypic changes to chondrocytes that increase vulnerability to tissue damage while lysed RBCs have a more direct influence on chondrocyte death by mechanisms that are representative of ferroptosis.

Instabilities induced by mechanical loading determine the viability of chondrocytes grown on porous scaffolds

Tissue-engineered cartilage constructs have shown promise to treat focal cartilage defects in multiple clinical studies. Notably, products in clinical use or in late-stage clinical trials often utilize porous collagen scaffolds to provide mechanical support and attachment sites for chondrocytes. Under loading, both the local mechanical responses of collagen scaffolds and the corresponding cellular outcomes are poorly understood, despite their wide use. As such, the architecture of collagen scaffolds varies significantly among tissue-engineered cartilage products, but the effects of such architectures on construct mechanics and cell viability are not well understood. This study investigated the effects of local mechanical responses of collagen scaffolds on chondrocyte viability in tissue-engineered cartilage constructs. We utilized fast confocal microscopy combined with a strain mapping technique to analyze the architecture-dependent instabilities under quasi-static loading and subsequent chondrocyte death in honeycomb and sponge scaffolds. More specifically, we compared the isotropic and the orthotropic planes for each type of collagen scaffold. Under compression, both planes exhibited elastic, buckled, and densified deformation modes. In both loading directions, cell death was minimal in regions that experienced elastic deformation mode and a trend of increase in buckled mode. More interestingly, we saw a significant increase in cell death in densified mode. Overall, this study suggests that local instabilities are directly correlated to chondrocyte death in tissue-engineered cartilage constructs, highlighting the importance of understanding the architecture-dependent local mechanical responses under loading.

Biocompatible and functional properties of a microdispersed tissue-specific 3D matrix from decellularized porcine cartilage

In contrast to decellularization of soft tissues for use as tissue-specific matrices in the creation of tissue-engineered constructs, decellularization of cartilage tissue requires several processing techniques, which can negatively affect the biocompatibility and functional properties of the native extracellular matrix (ECM).Objective: to study the biocompatible and functional properties of microdispersed tissue-specific 3D matrix from a porcine cartilage that is decellularized by sequential use of chemical, physical and enzymatic techniques.Materials and methods. For decellularization, microdispersed cartilage particles (MCPs), obtained by cryomilling, were incubated in detergent solutions (sodium dodecyl sulfate and Triton X-100), then treated with supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) with 10% ethanol and DNase I. The Ames test (Salmonella typhimurium reverse mutation assay) was used to determine the genotoxicity of decellularized microdispersed cartilage particles (dMCPs). Local and general toxic effects, as well as resorption of dMCPs were studied in vivo on sexually mature outbred rats. Decellularized MCP specimens (10 mg) were implanted into the thigh muscle tissue. Viability of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (hAdMSCs), when cultured on dMCPs, was analyzed by in vivo microscopy, stained with fluorescent Calcein AM dye. Cell metabolic activity was assessed using PrestoBlue™ Cell Viability Reagent.Results. It has been proven that porcine dMCPs implanted in rat muscle after treatment with scCO2 do not exhibit local and general toxic effects, and do not show genotoxicity and negative effects on the reproductive system of animals. After 6 months of in vivo experiment, most (87%) of the implanted decellularized cartilage was resorbed. It was shown that the resulting matrices are able to support adhesion and proliferation of hAdMSCs. Conclusion. Porcine dMCP specimens are suitable for biocompatible medical products in terms of local and general toxic effects, genotoxicity and reproductive toxicity, and can be used as a matrix for creating cell- and tissue-engineered cartilage constructs.

Construction of Tissue-engineered Cartilage In Vivo from Microtia Chondrocytes After Transfection with Human VEGF165 Genes Mediated by a Recombinant Adeno-Associated Viral Vector.

To evaluate the transfection efficiency of cultured chondrocytes from individuals with microtia (microtia chondrocytes) with the recombinant adeno-associated virus vector rAAV2-hVEGF165-IRES-EGFP and hVEGF165 in vitro. To test whether VEGF165 gene-modified microtia chondrocytes can enhance the survival and quality of tissue-engineered cartilage. The recombinant plasmid rAAV2-hVEGF165-IRES-EGFP was inserted into rAAV2 virus vectors to construct rAAV2-hVEGF165-IRES-EGFP using the AATMaxTM system. The second-passage microtia chondrocytes were divided into 3 groups in vitro: the Ctr group (without transfection), Exp1 group (transfected with rAAV2-IRES-EGFP), and Exp2 group (transfected with rAAV2-hVEGF165-IRES-EGFP). At 24 h, 48 h, 72 h and 7 d after transfection, cell viability was measured by MTT staining. Transfection efficiency was determined by the rate of fluorescence-positive cells. The mRNA expression of hVEG165 was detected by RT-PCR (reverse transcription PCR) and agarose gel electrophoresis, and the VEGF165 protein levels in the supernatant fluids were measured by ELISAs. The second passage microtia chondrocytes with (Exp) and without (Ctr) transfection of VEGF165 genes were mixed with 0.5 ml 30% Pluronic F-127 at 4°C and then injected subcutaneously into the opposing side of the back of nude mice. Eight weeks after injection, the cartilage-like tissues of nude mice were harvested for morphological and histologic examination. Chondrocyte viability increased in a time-dependent manner but did not differ among the 3 groups at the same time point. The mRNA and protein levels of VEGF increased in a time-dependent manner in the 3 groups. The mRNA and protein levels of VEGF165 were much higher in the Exp 2 group than in the Ctr and Exp 1 groups at the same time point, but the levels were not significantly different between the Exp 1 and Exp 2 groups. Both the Ctr group and the Exp1 group formed mature cartilage with mature lacunar structures, metachromatic matrices, collagen, and elastic fibers, and the structure of neonatal cartilage was not significantly different between the 2 groups. However, the wet weight of the neonatal cartilage was much larger in the Exp group (127.4±12.4 mg) than in the Ctr group (58.5±12.2 mg, p < 0.05). VEGF protein staining also showed a higher level in the Exp group. The HVEGF165 gene was transfected efficiently into microtia chondrocytes using the recombinant adeno-associated virus vector rAAV2-hVEGF165-IRES-EGFP. After transfection, the mRNA and protein levels of hVEGF165 increased in a time-dependent manner. VEGF165 gene-modified microtia chondrocytes showed enhanced survival in vivo but did not improve the texture of tissue-engineered cartilage. This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each submission to which Evidence-Based Medicine rankings are applicable. This excludes Review Articles, Book Reviews, and manuscripts that concern Basic Science, Animal Studies, Cadaver Studies, and Experimental Studies. For a full description ofthese Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

Near infrared spectroscopic assessment of engineered cartilage for implantation in a pre-clinical model

IntroductionArticular cartilage lacks the capacity for self-repair due to its relative avascularity. Regenerative medicine approaches are now widely investigated, but optimal solutions have not been identified. This is partially attributable to challenges in identifying appropriate engineered constructs for implantation, and in assessing the repair trajectory in pre-clinical models. Objective: We investigated non-destructive near-infrared (NIR) fiber optic spectroscopy-derived parameters to inform (1) identification of optimal tissue engineered cartilage constructs prior to implantation and (2) assessment of repair tissue composition in a Yucatan mini-pig chondral defect model. MethodsTissue engineered cartilage (TEC) was developed using a co-culture system of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and chondrocytes encapsulated in a hyaluronic acid-based hydrogel. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)data were obtained from the TECs pre- and post-implantation and from repair tissue post-surgery. Healing response of the defects were compared to microfracture at 3 months post-implantation based on ICRS II scoring, mechanical testing, and NIRS. ResultsNo significant differences were found between the tissue engineered cartilage and microfracture repair tissue. Some NIR-determined properties of the developing TECs correlated significantly with aspects of the ICRS II repair tissue score, including the surface architecture and subchondral bone integration. Further, NIR-derived metrics to non-destructively assess repair tissue composition, in the presence of subchondral bone, were defined (5200/7000 cm−1 ratio), providing a valuable approach for future studies. ConclusionTogether, these data demonstrate the utility of NIR spectroscopy to identify developing TECs that may result in functional repair tissue and to facilitate repair tissue evaluation.

In vitro maturation and in vivo stability of bioprinted human nasal cartilage

The removal of skin cancer lesions on the nose often results in the loss of nasal cartilage. The cartilage loss is either surgically replaced with autologous cartilage or synthetic grafts. However, these replacement options come with donor-site morbidity and resorption issues. 3-dimensional (3D) bioprinting technology offers the opportunity to engineer anatomical-shaped autologous nasal cartilage grafts. The 3D bioprinted cartilage grafts need to embody a mechanically competent extracellular matrix (ECM) to allow for surgical suturing and resistance to contraction during scar tissue formation. We investigated the effect of culture period on ECM formation and mechanical properties of 3D bioprinted constructs of human nasal chondrocytes (hNC)-laden type I collagen hydrogel in vitro and in vivo. Tissue-engineered nasal cartilage constructs developed from hNC culture in clinically approved collagen type I and type III semi-permeable membrane scaffold served as control. The resulting 3D bioprinted engineered nasal cartilage constructs were comparable or better than the controls both in vitro and in vivo. This study demonstrates that 3D bioprinted constructs of engineered nasal cartilage are feasible options in nasal cartilage reconstructive surgeries.

The influence of chondrocyte source on the manufacturing reproducibility of human tissue engineered cartilage

Multiple human tissue engineered cartilage constructs are showing promise in advanced clinical trials but identifying important measures of manufacturing reproducibility remains a challenge. FDA guidance suggests measuring multiple mechanical properties prior to implantation, because these properties could affect the long term success of the implant. Additionally, these engineered cartilage mechanics could be sensitive to the autologous chondrocyte source, an inherently irregular manufacturing starting material. If any mechanical properties are sensitive to changes in the autologous chondrocyte source, these properties may need to be measured prior to implantation to ensure manufacturing reproducibility and quality. Therefore, this study identified variability in the compressive, friction, and shear properties of a human tissue engineered cartilage constructs due to the chondrocyte source. Over 200 constructs were created from 7 different chondrocyte sources and tested using 3 distinct mechanical experiments. Under confined compression, the compressive properties (aggregate modulus and hydraulic permeability) varied by orders of magnitude due to the chondrocyte source. The friction coefficient changed by a factor of 5 due to the chondrocyte source and high intrapatient variability was noted. In contrast, the shear modulus was not affected by changes in the chondrocyte source. Finally, measurements on the local compressive and shear mechanics revealed variability in the depth dependent strain fields based on chondrocyte source. Since the chondrocyte source causes large amounts of variability in the compression and local mechanical properties of engineered cartilage, these mechanical properties may be important measures of manufacturing reproducibility. Statement of significanceAlthough the FDA recommends measuring mechanical properties of human tissue engineered cartilage constructs during manufacturing, the effect of manufacturing variability on construct mechanics is unknown. As one of the first studies to measure multiple mechanical properties on hundreds of human tissue engineered cartilage constructs, we found the compressive properties are most sensitive to changes in the autologous chondrocyte source, an inherently irregular manufacturing variable. This sensitivity to the autologous chondrocyte source reveals the compressive properties should be measured prior to implantation to assess manufacturing reproducibility.

Reduction of Smad2 caused by oxidative stress leads to necrotic death of hypertrophic chondrocytes associated with an endemic osteoarthritis.

The occurrence and development of an endemic OA, Kashin-Beck disease (KBD), is closely related to oxidative stress induced by free radicals. The aim of the study was to find the key signalling molecules or pathogenic factors as a potential treatment strategy for KBD. Real-time PCR and western blotting were performed to detect the mRNA and protein expression levels in cells and tissues. Immunohistochemical staining was assayed in rat models and human samples obtained from children. The type of cell death was identified by annexin V and propidium iodide staining with flow cytometry. Oxidative stress decreased levels of Smad2 and Smad3 in hypertrophic chondrocytes both in vitro and in vivo. In the cartilage of KBD patients, the expression of Smad2 and Smad3 proteins in the middle and deep zone was significantly decreased with an observed full deletion in the deep zone of some samples. Reduction of Smad2 protein induced necrotic death of hypertrophic chondrocytes, while reduction of Smad3 protein induced apoptosis. The reduction of Smad2 protein was not accompanied by Smad3 protein reduction in hypertrophic chondrocyte necrosis. Furthermore, the reduction of Smad2 also impaired the construction of tissue-engineered cartilage in vitro. These studies reveal that oxidative stress causes necrosis of hypertrophic chondrocytes by downregulating Smad2 protein, which increases the pathogenesis of KBD cartilage. The importance of Smad2 in the development of KBD provides a new potential target for the treatment of KBD.

Ex Vivo Systems to Study Chondrogenic Differentiation and Cartilage Integration.

Articular cartilage injury and repair is an issue of growing importance. Although common, defects of articular cartilage present a unique clinical challenge due to its poor self-healing capacity, which is largely due to its avascular nature. There is a critical need to better study and understand cellular healing mechanisms to achieve more effective therapies for cartilage regeneration. This article aims to describe the key features of cartilage which is being modelled using tissue engineered cartilage constructs and ex vivo systems. These models have been used to investigate chondrogenic differentiation and to study the mechanisms of cartilage integration into the surrounding tissue. The review highlights the key regeneration principles of articular cartilage repair in healthy and diseased joints. Using co-culture models and novel bioreactor designs, the basis of regeneration is aligned with recent efforts for optimal therapeutic interventions.

Composite Hydrogel Model of Cartilage Predicts Its Load-Bearing Ability

Articular cartilage is a load-bearing tissue found in animal and human joints. It is a composite gel-like material in which a fibrous collagen network encapsulates large proteoglycan assemblies that imbibe fluid and “inflate” the network. Here we describe a composite hydrogel consisting of a cross-linked polyvinyl alcohol matrix filled with poly(acrylic acid) microparticles that mimics functional properties and biomechanical behavior of cartilage. The swelling and mechanical behaviors of this biomimetic model system are strikingly similar to that of human cartilage. The development of synthetic composite gel-based articular cartilage analog suggests new avenues to explore material properties, and their change in disease and degeneration, as well as novel strategies for developing composite tissue-engineered cartilage constructs for regenerative medicine applications.

Heterogeneous matrix deposition in human tissue engineered cartilage changes the local shear modulus and resistance to local construct buckling

Human tissue engineered cartilage is a promising solution for focal cartilage defects, but these constructs do not have the same local mechanical properties as native tissue. Most clinically relevant engineered cartilage constructs seed human chondrocytes onto a collagen scaffold, which buckles at low loads and strains. This buckling creates local regions of high strain that could cause cell death and damage the engineered tissue. Since human tissue engineered cartilage is commonly grown in-vivo prior to implantation, new matrix deposition could improve the local implant mechanics and prevent local tissue buckling. However, the relationship between local biochemical composition and the local mechanics or local buckling probability has never been quantified. Therefore, this study correlated the local biochemical composition of human tissue engineered cartilage constructs using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) with the local shear modulus and local buckling probability. The local shear modulus and local buckling probability were obtained using a confocal elastography technique. The local shear modulus increased with increases in local aggrecan content in the interior region (inside the scaffold). A minimum amount of aggrecan was required to prevent local construct buckling at physiologic strains. Since the original scaffold was primarily composed of collagen, increases in collagen content due to new matrix deposition was minimal and had little effect on the mechanical properties. Thus, we concluded that aggrecan deposition inside the scaffold pores is the most effective way to improve the mechanical function and prevent local tissue damage in human tissue engineered cartilage constructs.

Contrast enhanced computed tomography for real-time quantification of glycosaminoglycans in cartilage tissue engineered constructs

Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine are two therapeutic strategies to treat, and to potentially cure, diseases affecting cartilaginous tissues, such as osteoarthritis and cartilage defects. Insights into the processes occurring during regeneration are essential to steer and inform development of the envisaged regenerative strategy, however tools are needed for longitudinal and quantitative monitoring of cartilage matrix components. In this study, we introduce a contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CECT)-based method using a cationic iodinated contrast agent (CA4+) for longitudinal quantification of glycosaminoglycans (GAG) in cartilage-engineered constructs. CA4+ concentration and scanning protocols were first optimized to ensure no cytotoxicity and a facile procedure with minimal radiation dose. Chondrocyte and mesenchymal stem cell pellets, containing different GAG content were generated and exposed to CA4+. The CA4+ content in the pellets, as determined by micro computed tomography, was plotted against GAG content, as measured by 1,9-dimethylmethylene blue analysis, and showed a high linear correlation. The established equation was used for longitudinal measurements of GAG content over 28 days of pellet culture. Importantly, this method did not adversely affect cell viability or chondrogenesis. Additionally, the CA4+ distribution accurately matched safranin-O staining on histological sections. Hence, we show proof-of-concept for the application of CECT, utilizing a positively charged contrast agent, for longitudinal and quantitative imaging of GAG distribution in cartilage tissue-engineered constructs. Statement of SignificanceTissue engineering and regenerative medicine are promising therapeutic strategies for different joint pathologies such as cartilage defects or osteoarthritis. Currently, in vitro assessment on the quality and composition of the engineered cartilage mainly relies on destructive methods. Therefore, there is a need for the development of techniques that allow for longitudinal and quantitative imaging and monitoring of cartilage-engineered constructs. This work harnesses the electrostatic interactions between the negatively-charged glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and a positively-charged contrast agent for longitudinal and non-destructive quantification of GAGs, providing valuable insight on GAG development and distribution in cartilage engineered constructs. Such technique can advance the development of regenerative strategies, not only by allowing continuous monitoring but also by serving as a pre-implantation screening tool.

Construction of tissue-engineered cartilage with different biological scaffolds in vitro

This study aims to find out which polymeric scaffolds were more appropriate for the construction of tissue engineering cartilage. Rat costal cartilage chondrocytes were cultured in vitro. The first generation of chondrocytes was used as seed cells and inoculated in chitosan/gelatin and bone matrix gelatin (BMG)/fibrin glue scaffolds. Haematoxylin and eosin staining, toluidine blue staining, safranine O, immunological detection, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations were implemented. After2 weeks, all stains of BMG/fibrin glue showed that chondrocytes were uniformly distributed on the surface and inside of the material, and collagen and type II collagen staining was positive. There were slightly more cells on chitosan/gelatin than on BMG/fibrin glue. However, the number of internal cells was small with non-uniform distribution and the staining result was not as apparent as that of BMG/fibrin glue. As the culture time lengthened, results displayed a large quantity of expression of specific collagen and typed II collagen of chondrocytes, with chitosan/gelatin showing obvious advantages over BMG/fibrin glue material. The chitosan/gelatin contributed to maintaining chondrocyte phenotype and secretion of the extracellular matrix. Tissue engineering cartilage was successfully constructed in vitro. Moreover, such tissue growth, proliferation and matrix secretion of chondrocytes on chitosan/gelatin were superior to those on BMG/fibrin glue scaffold.

Advances in application of growth factors in stem cell cartilage tissue engineering

Natural degeneration or trauma of articular cartilage all can lead to its structural and functional damage. Without blood supply and nerve innervation, chondrocytes in the matrix lacunae obtain essential nutrients and excrete metabolites mainly through osmosis, finally leads to its low metabolic activity and difficulty in self-repair after injury. At present, drug conservative treatment and surgical operation are the main clinical treatment, but both of them can't meet the clinical needs well. The development of cartilage tissue engineering provides a new direction for the repair of articular cartilage injury, in which growth factors plays a very important role. Growth factors, together with seed cells and cell scaffolds, constitute the three elements for the construction of tissue-engineered cartilage. Among them, Growth factors can significantly promote cell proliferation and differentiation and induce their functions. Various growth factors synergistically mediate the differentiation of seed cells into chondrocytes. In recent years, stem cell cartilage tissue engineering developed rapidly, which has opened a new way for repair of articular cartilage damage due to its abundant cell resources, small damage to body itself, strong ability of proliferation and directional differentiation, biological repair and other prominent advantages. Different types of hydrogels and stem cells show different abilities to support chondrogenesis and require different growth factors to induce chondrocyte differentiation. Traditional growth factors for tissue engineering include transcription growth factor β, insulin-like growth factors, bone morphogenetic proteins, fibroblast growth factors and cartilage derived morphogenetic protein. Recently, some scholars found that platelet-rich plasma, platelet-rich fibrin, Kartogenin and Mechano-growth factor can also effectively induce chondrogenic differentiation of stem cells and maintain chondrocyte phenotype. In addition, some synthetic compounds such as dexamethasone and inorganic particles can also promote the differentiation of stem cells into cartilage. This article systematically summarized the new progress of the traditional growth factors, emphatically introduced the new discovered growth factors and some synthetic compounds and inorganic particles, which can induce stem cells into cartilage. Finally classified the different sources of stem cells and its suitable growth factors, and gave an outlook of the next research direction of growth factors.