TiO2 Nanoparticles Research Articles

Enhancement of surfactant performance via titanium dioxide nanoparticles: implication for oil recovery in sandstone

The application of titanium dioxide nanoparticles in the petroleum research area has received ample attention in recent years owing to its impact on wettability-altering agents. Further, employing a surfactant injection to improve oil production in sandstone formations on an industrial scale has become an alternative solution, particularly for mature fields. However, the existing literature on the combination of alkyl ethoxy carboxylate (AEC) surfactant with titanium dioxide nanoparticles on the application of enhanced oil recovery in sandstone formations remains underreported. This study explores the impact of combining AEC surfactant with titanium dioxide nanoparticles on recovering trapped oil in sandstone by examining the interfacial tension, contact angle, zeta potential, and core flooding with various concentrations of added titanium dioxide nanoparticles (0, 0.01, 0.025, and 0.05 wt%) on AEC surfactant. Although the addition of 0.05 wt% TiO2 to AEC surfactant can significantly reduce the interfacial tension to the lowest value of 5.85 × 10−5 mN/m, our results show that the highest oil recovery in Berea sandstone (59.52% recovery factor) is achieved at the concentration of 0.025 wt% added TiO2 to AEC surfactant. We find that the stability of TiO2 nanoparticles on AEC surfactant plays a significant role in getting maximum oil recovery. These important findings from this study contribute to improving our understanding on the application of TiO2 combined with AEC surfactant to achieve more efficient and sustainable enhanced oil recovery in sandstone.

Experimental Investigation on Climate-Control Nano-Composite Polycarbonate Sheets Enhanced with TiO2, ZnO, and Zeolite Nanoparticles for Polyhouse Use

Abstract Optimal food production is achieved when crops receive the necessary nutrients, and the desired levels of temperature, humidity, solar radiation, and sufficient water. Climate Control Agriculture, or Controlled Environment Agriculture, utilizes a technology-based approach to grow plants in a controlled environment. This study focuses on the experimental investigation of polycarbonate sheets doped with TiO2, ZnO, and zeolite nanoparticles for potential use in polyhouse applications. The thermal performance of these synthesized sheets and standard polycarbonate sheets was tested in a laboratory setting. A specialized experimental setup, consisting of two cabinets, was designed and fabricated for this purpose. Ten synthesized sheets each with thicknesses of 50 µm and 70 µm, and two commercial sheets of 70 µm thickness were tested experimentally in the laboratory for their thermal performance. Results indicated that the doping concentration of 0.3% was the most effective, while 0.1% was the least effective. Among the three doping materials, TiO2-doped sheets demonstrated superior ultra-violate light absorption capacity due to their high refractive index and band gap energy, which enhances their ability to absorb and scatter ultra-violate light. . ZnO offered stronger UV protection than the remaining three materials. However, it has a lower refractive index than TiO2. Its overall thermal performance was lower than TiO2. The desired properties of nanocomposites for use in polyhouse applications such as thermal performance in the laboratory, UV protection, mechanical strength and durability, transparency, photostability, and safety were compared based on the experimental results and the data available in the literature and was concluded that polycarbonate doped with ZnO and TiO₂ nanoparticles were the most suitable.

Eco-Friendly TiO2 Nanoparticles: Harnessing Aloe Vera for Superior Photocatalytic Degradation of Methylene Blue

In recent years, the contamination of aquatic environments by organic chemicals, including dyes such as methylene blue (MB), Congo red, and crystal violet, has become an increasing concern, as has their treatment. In this work, titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) were studied for their photocatalytic performance by measuring the degradation of MB under UV light. TiO2 NPs were synthesized using two synthetic processes optimized in this study: a green method, namely leveraging the natural properties of Aloe vera leaf extract; and a conventional approach. The resulting NPs were thoroughly characterized using X-rays Diffraction (XRD), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), UV–Vis and ζ-potential analysis. The TiO2 NPs synthesized by the green method demonstrated a degradation efficiency of (50 ± 3)% after 180 minutes, which was significantly higher than the (16 ± 3)% achieved by NPs synthesized through the conventional route. Moreover, the reaction rate constant for the green-synthesized TiO2 NPs was found to be approximately five times greater than that of the conventionally synthesized NPs. These results open up a new scenario in the pollution removal strategy research, using resources accessible in nature to synthesize NPs with high photocatalytic activity, which could also be useful for other applications, such as hydrogen production.

Skin Sensitization Potential of Sensitizers in the Presence of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles In Vitro

Silica (SiO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) are widely used in dermal products. Their skin sensitization potential, especially their effects in combination with known sensitizers, is poorly studied in vitro and their sensitization inconsistently reported in animal studies. In this study, cellular assays were used to identify different steps of sensitization, the activation of keratinocytes and dendritic cells, when cells were exposed to these NPs in the absence and presence of sensitizers. Cellular systems included HaCaT keratinocytes and U937 (U-SENS™) alone, as well as different co-culture systems of THP-1 cells with HaCaT cells (COCAT) and with primary keratinocytes. The effect of NPs differed between co-cultures and U-SENS™, whereas co-cultures with either primary keratinocytes or HaCaT cells responded similarly. Pre-exposure to ZnO NPs increased the U-SENS™ assay response to 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene six-fold. The COCAT increase was maximally four-fold for the combination of SiO2 and trans cinnamaldehyde. When the THP-1 cells were separated from the keratinocytes by a membrane, the response of the co-culture system was more similar to U-SENS™. The direct contact with keratinocytes decreased the modulating effect of TiO2 and ZnO NPs but suggested an increase in response to sensitizers following dermal contact with SiO2 NPs.

Innovative synthesis of YF3‐TiO2 acid‐base catalysts with high surface area by embedding yttrium trifluoride nanoparticles in TiO2 metallogel

Combining a water‐tolerant oxide such as TiO2 with yttrium fluoride is expected to provide catalysts with enhanced acid‐base properties for catalytic applications in water. We present here a new strategy of incorporating pre‐formed YF3 nanoparticles (NPs) in a TiO2‐based metallogel, followed by its soft drying at room temperature to produce YF3‐TiO2 xerogel with high surface area. The as‐synthesized YF3‐TiO2 materials were calcinated at 300 and 400 and characterized by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X‐ray diffraction (XRD), 19F NMR and N2 physisorption, calorimetry of NH3 adsorption, and FT‐IR of pyridine adsorption. These studies indicate that the fluorine is present under a stable form of YF3 for the catalysts calcined at 300 °C. The acid‐base properties of these YF3‐TiO2 catalysts were investigated in a model reaction, i.e., dihydroxyacetone (DHA) conversion in water, and compared with the blank TiO2 and YF3 NPs alone. The incorporation of YF3 in the TiO2 matrix leads to enhanced initial rate of DHA dehydration into pyruvaldehyde, which is slowly converted to lactic acid as the reaction progresses. This suggests that the Brønsted acidity was boosted by the presence of YF3 species via water adsorption in a dissociative form.

Impact of TiO2, ZnO, and Ag nanoparticles on anammox activity in enriched river Nile sediment cultures: unveiling differential effects and environmental implications.

The increasing use of nanoparticles (NPs) necessitates investigation of their impact on wastewater treatment processes, particularly anammox, a critical biological nitrogen removal pathway. This study explored the effects of short-term exposure to TiO2, ZnO, and Ag-NPs on anammox activity in enriched cultures derived from River Nile sediments. Anammox bacteria were identified and enriched, with activity confirmed through 16S rRNA and hydrazine oxidoreductase (hzo) gene amplification and sequencing. Activity assays demonstrated efficient ammonium removal by the enriched culture. Subsequently, the impact of different sized and concentrated NPs on anammox activity was assessed. XRD analysis confirmed NP behavior within the microcosms: TiO2 transformed, ZnO partially dissolved, and Ag remained ionic. hzo gene expression served as a biomarker for anammox bacterial activity. Interestingly, 100nm TiO2-NPs up-regulated hzo expression, potentially indicating a non-inhibitory transformed phase. Conversely, ZnO and Ag-NPs across all sizes and concentrations significantly down-regulated hzo expression, suggesting detrimental effects. Ag-NPs amended microcosms showed a significant reduction (79%) in hzo gene expression and a detrimental effect on bacterial populations. Overall, anammox activity mirrored hzo expression patterns, with TiO2 (21 and 25nm, respectively) exhibiting the least inhibition, followed by ZnO and Ag-NPs. This study highlights the differential effects of NPs on anammox, with the order of impact being Ag > ZnO > TiO2. These findings provide valuable insights into the potential environmental risks of NPs on anammox-mediated nitrogen cycling in freshwater ecosystems.

Effect of temperature and nanoparticle size on the interfacial layer thickness of TiO2–water nanofluids using molecular dynamics

Abstract In the design and optimization of nanofluids, it is crucial to investigate and characterize the thermal conductivity enhancement mechanisms and their influencing factors. Although the effect of the “liquid film” on the thermal conductivity of the solid–liquid interface in nanofluids has been extensively studied, most of the research in this area has examined metal–water nanofluids or Ar-based nanofluids. In this work, non-equilibrium molecular dynamics is utilized to explore the mechanism of thermal conductivity enhancement in TiO2–water nanofluids. It is noted that a distinct interfacial layer is formed within 5 Å from the nanoparticle surface. As the nanoparticle size increases, the number density also increases, resulting in a corresponding increase in the thermal conductivity. Moreover, adding 1% TiO2 nanoparticles to water leads to an increase in thermal conductivity of 1.5–3%. Notably, the interfacial layer thickness remains relatively constant with the change in temperature. The Materials Studio analysis results indicated that the water molecule will have stable chemisorption on the titanium dioxide surface with an adsorption energy of approximately −0.96 eV. The findings of this study offer new insights and useful information to support the selection of nanomaterials for the preparation of convective systems.

Neuro Fuzzy in Predicting the Characteristics of Some Nanomaterials

Unveiling the impressive capabilities of the Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS), this study effectively predicts key properties of engineered nanomaterials, opening doors to innovative applications across various industries. We initially investigate the cytotoxic effects of TiO2 and ZnO nanoparticles on immortalized human lung epithelial cells, employing ANFIS to establish correlations between nanoparticle size and behaviour in different media and the resulting cellular membrane damage, quantified by lactate dehydrogenase release. Next, to predict the compressive strength of geopolymers, analysing over previous experimental datasets focused on critical chemical ratios. This model demonstrates its capability to optimize formulations for enhanced mechanical performance in sustainable construction materials. Additionally, we apply ANFIS to evaluate the size of silver nanoparticles in montmorillonite/starch bio nanocomposites, identifying significant factors such as AgNO3 concentration. The ANFIS models achieved high accuracy across all applications, underscoring their utility in predicting material behaviour and optimizing formulations for improved performance and safety. Collectively, these findings illustrate the potential of ANFIS as a robust tool in nanomaterial research and development.

Photocatalytic Activity of TiO2 Nanoparticles in the Degradation of Residues of Metribuzin

Photocatalytic Activity of TiO2 Nanoparticles in the Degradation of Residues of Metribuzin

Thermoplastic Starch with Maltodextrin: Preparation, Morphology, Rheology, and Mechanical Properties

This work describes the preparation of highly homogeneous thermoplastic starches (TPS’s) with the addition of 0, 5, or 10 wt.% of maltodextrin (MD) and 0 or 3 wt.% of TiO2 nanoparticles. The TPS preparation was based on a two-step preparation protocol, which consisted in solution casting (SC) followed by melt mixing (MM). Rheology measurements at the typical starch processing temperature (120 °C) demonstrated that maltodextrin acted as a lubricating agent, which decreased the viscosity of the system. Consequently, the in situ measurement during the MM confirmed that the torque moments and real processing temperatures of all TPS/MD systems decreased in comparison with the pure TPS. The detailed characterization of morphology, thermomechanical properties, and local mechanical properties revealed that the viscosity decrease was accompanied by a slight decrease in the system homogeneity. The changes in the real processing temperatures might be quite moderate (ca 2–3 °C), but maltodextrin is a cheap and easy-to-add modifier, and the milder processing conditions are advantageous for both technical applications (energy savings) and biomedical applications (beneficial for temperature-sensitive additives, such as antibiotics).

A comprehensive analysis of the structural, textural, and nanomechanical properties of sol–gel synthesized TiO2, Al2O3, and SiO2 nanoparticles

A comprehensive analysis of the structural, textural, and nanomechanical properties of sol–gel synthesized TiO2, Al2O3, and SiO2 nanoparticles

Comparative analysis of the antimicrobial activity and dye degradation of metal oxides (TiO2, CdO, Mn2O3, and ZnO) nanoparticles using a green approach.

A tremendous amount of recent work has been done on different metal oxide nanomaterials for biological activities and photocatalytic dye degradation. This work used the Cissus quadrangularis leaf extract to prepare TiO2, CdO, Mn2O3, and ZnO nanoparticles using a green synthesis approach. To ascertain the physicochemical characteristics of the generated metal oxide nanoparticles, various characterisation techniques were used. The X-ray diffraction technique was used to determine the composition of the crystal and phase. Metal oxide nanoparticles have been proven to be present through surface morphological investigations using a scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis. UV-Vis and Fourier transform infrared spectra were used for spectroscopic analysis. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy can determine a material's elemental composition in addition to the electronicand chemicalstates of its atoms. The nanomaterial's distinct morphology, which resembles rods, rose petals, platelets, and spheres, was discovered by scanning electron microscope. Synthesized metal oxide nanoparticles have demonstrated a remarkable efficiency of 87.5-90.6% when utilized as a catalyst towards the removal of the malachite green dye under UV light irradiation. Additionally, we use the disc diffusion method to assess antibiotic efficacy against Bacillus subtilis, Candida tropicalis, and Escherichia coli. ZnO nanoparticles had the greatest zones of inhibition for 80 μL doses, measuring 26.99mm for Bacillus subtilis, 27.57mm for Escherichia coli, and 25.28mm for Candida tropicalis. The antimicrobial activity was strongly impacted by the size of the nanoparticles and increased with decreasing particle size. Overall, our research demonstrates that metal oxide nanoparticles are a promising photocatalytic agent for wastewater treatment and biological applications.

Corrosion and mechanical characterisation of Al/TiO2/Y2O3 hybrid nanocomposites produced by squeeze casting

ABSTRACT In this study, the corrosion and mechanical performance of hybrid aluminium matrix nanocomposites (HAMNCs) reinforced with titanium oxide (TiO2) and yttrium oxide (Y2O3) nanoparticles were investigated. A squeeze-casting process was used to develop five HAMNCs with wt.% of nanoparticles of 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10. The corrosion resistance of HAMNCs was investigated during a 168-h salt spray test. XRD examined the crystallographic and elemental properties of the HAMNCs. FESEM was used to examine nanoparticle distribution and interaction in the matrix. The microhardness, compression strength and yield strength properties of the fabricated samples were examined. The introduction of nanoparticles at 5 wt.% TiO2 +5 wt.% Y2O3 (HAMNC6) in the Al matrix had the most outstanding properties (corrosion resistance, microhardness, compression strength, yield strength). The properties were shown to be inversely proportional with an increase in the wt.% of the nanoparticles. The SEM analysis of corroded surfaces revealed that TiO2 and Y2O3 nanoparticles were found near the grain boundaries of HAMNC6, causing small pits and minor cracks.

Controllable Synthesis of BixOyBrz/TiO2 Heterojunctions with Excellent Visible‐Light‐Driven Photocatalytic Activities for Phenol

AbstractBixOyBrz/TiO2 composites have been synthesized by hydrothermal method, with TiO2 nanoparticles being employed as substrate. During the process of hydrothermal reaction, both temperature and pH have been utilized to effectively regulate the Bi/Br atomic ratio of BixOyBrz/TiO2 composites. In essence, the competitive reaction between OH− and Br− in the solution is the key factor to form BixOyBrz with different Bi/Br atomic ratios. Under visible light, the prepared Bi4O5Br2/TiO2 heterojunction demonstrates higher photocatalytic activity than other BixOyBrz/TiO2 composites for phenol and Rh B. The removal rate of phenol with Bi4O5Br2/TiO2 heterojunction is up to 92.1% after irradiation for 75 min. The excellent photocatalytic activities of Bi4O5Br2/TiO2 heterojunction are mainly attributed to its optimized microstructure and the matching band energy structure, whereby TiO2 nanoparticles with ≈10 nm diameter uniformly arranged on ≈10.2 nm thick Bi4O5Br2 nanosheets. Moreover, the heterojunction structure promotes the separation of photo‐generated electrons and holes in Bi4O5Br2/TiO2, while and h+ are the main active species during its photocatalytic processes.

Tribological performance of TiO2 nanoparticle-oil-water emulsion in the hot rolling process

This study aims to evaluate the lubrication performance of a nano-TiO2 oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion during the hot rolling process. A series of O/W emulsions with varying concentrations of TiO2 nanoparticles (0.05, 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5 wt.%) were synthesized. Tribological tests were conducted under a load of 70 N for 10 minutes to determine the optimal concentration based on anti-frictional properties. The O/W nano-emulsion optimized with a 0.1 wt.% concentration of TiO2 applied in the hot rolling process of IS 2062 E250 grade steel. This application resulted in a reduction of rolling force (RF) and surface roughness, suggesting its potential as an alternative lubricant. The results indicated superior antifriction performance at a TiO2 concentration of 0.1 wt.%, leading to a 15% reduction in RF. Additionally, the use of the nano-emulsion contributed to a significant reduction in oxide scale formation. Surface roughness measurements of the rolled samples revealed a 19% decrease, with a roughness value of 2.125 µm, compared to samples rolled with a nano-free O/W emulsion. These findings suggest that nano-TiO2 O/W emulsions could serve as an effective alternative to conventional O/W emulsions in future industrial metalworking applications.

Lignin-Derived Gold-Titanium Dioxide Nanophotocomposites as Potent Photoactivatable Probes for Microbial Inactivation.

The overuse of antibiotics has accelerated antibiotic resistance, and it is a significant global threat to public health. To combat the rising threat of drug-resistant microbes, antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (APDT) has emerged as a promising alternative therapeutic strategy. This study focuses on the synthesis of eco-friendly lignin-derived gold-titanium dioxide nanophotocomposites (L@Au-TiO2 NCs). Lignin was utilized as a sustainable precursor for the synthesis of L@Au-TiO2 NCs. The gold and TiO2 nanoparticles possess inherent photodynamic properties, and thus the developed L@Au-TiO2 NCs exhibit enhanced antimicrobial efficacy due to the synergistic combination of their attributes. The antimicrobial potential of the L@Au-TiO2 NCs was evaluated against various microbial strains (Escherichia coli, Bacillus megaterium, and Candida tropicalis) under dark and green light conditions. The outcome of this study highlights the promising potential of L@Au-TiO2 NCs for photodynamic antimicrobial applications. The L@Au-TiO2 nanophotocomposites could be explored in the fields of medicine and nanotechnology to introduce innovative ideas into the biomedical field.

Green chemistry approach to synthesize titanium dioxide nanoparticles using Fagonia Cretica extract, novel strategy for developing antimicrobial and antidiabetic therapies

Abstract This groundbreaking study explores the eco-friendly production of titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) to investigate their impact on health. TiO2 NPs were synthesized utilizing a plant extract from Fagonia cretica, acting as both stabilizers and reducers. Various techniques, including energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV-Vis, and X-ray diffraction (XRD), were employed to analyze the synthesized TiO2 NPs. FT-IR revealed functional groups crucial for nanoparticle (NP) formation. SEM confirmed the particle size of synthesized TiO2 NPs, ranging from 20 to 80 nm. XRD analysis highlighted the rutile phase crystalline structure, and EDX determined the elemental composition of TiO2 NPs. These NPs displayed potent antimicrobial properties, proving toxic to bacterial and the fungal strains at 50 µg·mL−1 concentration. Impressively, TiO2 NPs showcased significant antidiabetic effects in adult male albino mice, effectively reducing Streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemia and hypercholesterolemia by the improvement in behavior via random blood glucose, triglyceride, low density lipoproteins, high density lipoprteins, very low density lipoproteins, and GTT pathway at 100 and 200 µL. Furthermore, they exhibited a remarkable impact on human liver cancer cell lines, with a 43.2% reduction in cell viability at 100 µg·mL−1 concentration. In essence, the study highlights TiO2 NPs as a safe, natural therapeutic agent with immense potential in diabetes treatment. The MTT assay was utilized to assess their cytotoxicity and biocompatibility, affirming their promising role in healthcare.

Investigation of convective heat transport in a Carreau hybrid nanofluid between two stretchable rotatory disks

Abstract Hybrid nanofluids (HNFs) have outstanding energy transfer capabilities that are comparable to mono-nanofluids. Materials had appliances in obvious fields such as heat generation, micropower generation, and solar collectors. The objective of this study is to investigate the new aspects of convective heat transfer in an electrically conducting Carreau HNF situated between two parallel discs. In addition to the presumed stretchability and rotation of the discs, physical phenomena like nonlinear radiation, viscous dissipation, Joule dissipation, and heat generation and absorption are considered. The Cu and TiO2 nanoparticles dispersed in engine oil to understand the intricate phenomenon of hybridization. The Tiwari and Das nanofluid model is employed to model the governing partial differential equations (PDEs) and then simplified using boundary layer approximation. The suitable transformations of similarity variables are defined and implemented to change the set of formulated PDEs into ordinary differential equations. The reduced system is solved semi-analytically by the homotopy analysis method. The influences of involving physical parameters on the velocity and temperature are plotted with the help of graphical figures. This study brings forth a significant contribution by uncovering novel flow features that have previously remained unexplored. By addressing a well-defined problem, our research provides valuable insights into the enhancement of thermal transport, with direct implications for diverse engineering devices such as solar collectors, heat exchangers, and microelectronics.

A Fe3+-Doped TiO2 Superhydrophilic Coating with Transparent and Long-Lasting Antifogging Properties Constructed Based on Nanostructured Antireflective and Capillary Anchoring Effects.

Superhydrophilic surfaces have attracted great interest in antifogging applications. However, balancing long-lasting superhydrophilicity and high transparency on antifogging surfaces remains a serious problem to be solved. The objective of this work is to prepare superhydrophilic coatings with transparent and long-lasting antifogging properties. In the design, a three-step method was used to obtain the target coatings: (1) magnetron sputtering deposition of a TiN film to provide high intensity, (2) anodic oxidation of the TiN film to obtain TiO2 nanoparticles intended for nanostructured antireflective and capillary structures, and (3) the sol-gel method for the preparation of Fe3+-doped TiO2 coatings using spin-coating in order to achieve superhydrophilicity. The nanostructures, due to their subwavelength dimensions, not only provide high transparency but also recoverable superhydrophilicity owing to the presence of a capillary anchoring effect that prevents the coating from dissolving and peeling off after soaking. The doping of Fe3+ broadened the photoresponse range and maintained the long-lasting superhydrophilicity. Tests showed that the 2 mol % Fe3+-doped TiO2 coating with nanostructures exhibited the highest transparency, longest-lasting superhydrophilicity, and antifogging properties. Furthermore, the coating provided excellent self-cleaning properties, as well as mechanical and chemical stability.

Green synthesized nano-TiO2 from Tamarindusindica leaf extract for photo-degradation of combination of dyes by suspension and immobilization on inert supports

ABSTRACT The present study aims to use green synthesized TiO2 as a photocatalyst in suspended and immobilized form under UV light to efficiently degrade a combination of reactive dyes, namely titan yellow, methyl orange, rhodamine B, and methylene blue. TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized using Tamarindus indica leaf extract and were utilized to parametrically study photo-degradation at room temperature. The green synthesized NPs were characterized by Powder XRD, SEM, and FTIR techniques to understand the crystalline phase/purity, morphology, and functional groups respectively. The TiO2 in suspension under UV light showed >90% degradation towards a 10 ppm composite dye at a loading of 1.5 gL−1, pH 7, and an irradiation time of 120 min. Subsequently, TiO2 was further immobilized in-situ, on inert supports of perlite granules and glass and studied for catalytic activity in batch and continuous modes. The TiO2 nanoparticles immobilized on perlite granules and glass showed 59 and 48% degradation in batch operation under the same conditions as in suspended form. In continuous mode, the highest degradation activity was recorded at 2 Lh−1 after 4 passes. Further, kinetic studies reveal that the degradation reaction is best described by Langmuir Hinshelwood kinetics for both suspended and immobilized TiO2.