Children's Time Use Research Articles

Associations among screen time, sleep, mental health and cognitive functioning in school-aged children during the COVID-19 pandemic, November 2020 through to August 2022

ObjectiveTo examine children’s screen time use and sleep patterns over 2 years of the pandemic and the downstream associations with children’s executive functions and behavioural problems, as well as the moderating effects of parental factors. MethodThis longitudinal cohort study examined school-aged children’s lifestyle and behavioural changes over 2 years of the pandemic across 6 timepoints (November 2020 to August 2022). Latent growth modeling (LGM) was used to identify changes in screen time and sleep duration and multivariate LGM was used to determine how parental stress, positive parenting, changes in children’s screen time and sleep over time were associated with children’s executive functions and mental health outcomes at the final time point. ResultsA total of 198 parents (children’s mean age = 9.14 years) were recruited and followed up. Non-school screen time was elevated at the initial timepoint (3.6 ± 2.3 h). Positive parenting at the initial timepoint was associated with lower screen time use in children (β = −.19, p < .001; β = −.19, p < .001, in internalizing and externalizing models). Children whose screen time use was constant during the pandemic had shorter sleep durations (β = −.45, p < .05 in internalizing model). Executive function was predicted by sleep duration at the first timepoint (β = −.55, p < .001; β = .73, p < .001, in internalizing and externalizing models) and changes in screen time during the pandemic was associated with both internalizing and externalizing symptoms (β = .58, p < .05; β = .54, p < .05, in internalizing and externalizing models). ConclusionChildren’s screen time decreased slightly but remained significantly higher than Canadian and International guidelines during 2 years of the pandemic. Positive parenting styles can have a significant impact on children's screen time use. Reducing excessive screen time can help improve sleep patterns and, consequently, cognitive, and emotional well-being in children.

Cross-sectional and prospective associations between children's 24-h time use and their health-related quality of life: a compositional isotemporal substitution approach

Promoting active, balanced lifestyles among children may be an important approach to optimising their health-related quality of life (HRQoL). However, the relationships between children's movement behaviours and HRQoL remain unclear. We examined the associations between movement behaviours (sleep, inactivity, light and moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity) assessed using accelerometers at ages 8 and 10 years and self-reported HRQoL scores (overall, and physical and emotional well-being, self-esteem, relationship with family and friends, and school functioning domains) at age 10 years among 370 children in a local birth cohort using compositional isotemporal substitution techniques. Cross-sectionally, light and moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activities were associated with better self-esteem (β=15.94 [2.71, 29.18]) and relationship with friends (β=10.28 [3.81, 16.74]) scores respectively. Prospectively, inactivity was associated with lower overall HRQoL (β=-10.00 [-19.13,-0.87]), relationship with friends (β=-16.41 [-31.60,-1.23]) and school functioning (β=-15.30 [-29.16,-1.44]) scores, while sleep showed a positive trend with overall HRQoL (β=10.76 [-1.09, 22.61]) and school functioning (β=17.12 [-0.87, 35.10]) scores. Children's movement behaviours were not associated with their physical and emotional well-being, or relationship with family scores. The isotemporal substitution analyses suggest that increasing time spent in physical activity and/or sleep at the expense of inactivity may benefit children's HRQoL. Our findings suggest that sleep and physical activity may be associated with better HRQoL, with the inverse for inactivity. However, the relationship between children's movement behaviours and HRQoL is complex and warrants further research. Singapore National Research Foundation, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research.

The Association Between Socioeconomic Status and Use of Time in Australian Children and Adolescents

PurposeThere are well-known socioeconomic status (SES) gradients in children and adolescents' health which may be associated with time use. Our aim was to evaluate the association between Australian children's 24-hour time use and SES using four separate surveys from 2005 to 2021. MethodsTime use was assessed in 4526 8-19-year-olds from the 2005 Health of Young Victorians, 2007 National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity, 2015 Child Health CheckPoint, and 2019-21 Life on Holidays study. Each survey used the same reliable, valid, 24-hour recall instrument. SES was quantified using tertiles of household income, education, and postcode-level measures. Compositional data analysis was used to compare 24-hour time use between SES categories, adjusting for age, sex, and puberty. ResultsTime-use compositions differed significantly by SES in each survey. Relative to the lowest SES, children from the highest SES accumulated on average 31 min/day more School-related time, 6 min/day more Passive Transport and 6 min/day more Self-care. Conversely, they accumulated 30 min/day less Screen Time (which included computer time), 11 min/day less sleep, and spent 7 min/day less in Domestic/Social activities. There were only small differences in Quiet Time and Physical Activity. DiscussionSES-related differences in time use were robust across ages 8-19, a 16-year timespan, diverse Australian geographical regions, and using different SES metrics. The exchange of about 30 min/day between School-related activities and Screen Time amounts to >180 hours extra exposure to School-related activities annually in the highest SES category relative to the lowest, equivalent to >6 weeks of school time per year.

Digital citizenship of children and youth with autism: Developing guidelines and strategies for caregivers and clinicians to support healthy use of screens.

Children and youth with autism use screens in their daily lives and in their rehabilitation programs. Although parents and clinicians experience specific challenges when supporting positive screen time use of children and youth with autism, no detailed information for this group exists. Therefore, this study aimed to develop clear guidelines that are agreed by expert clinicians and parents of children and youth with autism. Using a method called Delphi, 30 experts-20 clinicians and 10 caregivers, who have experience working with or caring for children and youth with autism were invited to complete a series of three surveys. In each round, the experts had to rate their agreement with statements regarding screen time management. The agreement level was set to 75%. The final themes to be included in the guidelines were accepted by more than 75% of the panel. The final guidelines included six main sections: (1) general principles, (2) considerations for timing and content of leisure screen time use, (3) strategies for caregivers and clinicians to monitor and regulate screen time use, (4) behaviors to monitor for screen time overuse, (5) additional guidelines for clinicians, and (6) resources. The new guidelines developed in this study can provide potential guidance on how to further the development of digital citizenship for children and youth with autism and provide strategies to families to help manage screen time use.

Early effects of the COVID-19 lockdown on children in north-western Bangladesh

ABSTRACT Using data collected through a structured telephone-based survey in north-western Bangladesh during the height of the pandemic, we present evidence on the effects of household specific shocks on rural children induced by the COVID-19 lockdowns. We focus on three child-related outcomes: time use of children during school closures, plans regarding children’s future schooling, and the incidence of child marriages. We find that respiratory illness and job loss experienced in the household lowered expectations of a child’s future school continuation and increased the probability of marriage-related discussions for girls. The return of a male migrant led to a reduction of children’s time spent doing paid work, while the return of a female migrant led to a reduction in children’s time spent caring for others and doing household chores. Our findings offer a cautionary tale regarding the potential long-term effects of the pandemic and school closures on girls in developing countries.

Gendered time poverty in three developing countries: An intra‐household analysis of children's time use

AbstractAdvances in data collection and methodology have contributed to the rise of time use as a topic of economic analysis, but much of the research focuses on adults in advanced economies. We document gendered differences in the intra‐household allocation of children's time in Ethiopia, India, and Vietnam based on the Young Lives Longitudinal Study. Using household fixed effects regressions, we document a leisure deficit for girls, highlighting a gender gap that has received less attention. We use the concept of time poverty to further investigate the nature of the leisure deficit, applying a relative time poverty line. A gender gap in the incidence of time poverty emerges at an early age and is spread across the wealth distribution. Our findings relate to the literature on time poverty of women in developing countries and have implications for promoting gender equality under Sustainable Development Goal target 5.4 on unpaid care and domestic work.

Subjective well-being of Thai pre-teen children: Individual, family, and school determinants

Children's subjective well-being is crucial for ensuring decent child development. At present, evidence about children's subjective well-being is limited, particularly regarding insights from developing countries. This study aimed to assess overall life satisfaction, multi-dimensional life satisfaction of Thai pre-teens, and factors associated with the children's overall life satisfaction. A cross-sectional study was carried out with 2277 children in grade 4 to 6 at 50 public primary schools from nine provinces across all regions of Thailand. The data collection took place between September and December 2020. The children were satisfied with their overall life to a considerable degree (8.5 out of 10). Girls had higher life satisfaction and satisfaction with multiple life domains (except for “autonomy”) than boys. Compared with older children, younger children had higher overall life satisfaction and satisfaction with multiple life domains except for “autonomy”, “yourself” and “friends”. The children's overall life satisfaction was increased in proportion to satisfaction with family, friends, oneself, physical appearance, health, teacher, school activity, and autonomy. Concerning individual factors, their social skills and time spent on gardening (≥1 h/day) and active recreational activities (1–3 h/day) had positive influence upon their overall life satisfaction, while too much time on screen (>1 h/day) and music (>3 h/day) had negative results. In terms of family factors, children having fathers owning a shop/business had higher life satisfaction than children having fathers who were manual workers, while children who lost their fathers had lower life satisfaction. For school factors, school connectedness had a positive relationship with their overall life satisfaction. Children's subjective well-being promotion should include family-based and school-based interventions to improve children's time use (e.g., more active outdoor lifestyle and less sedentary lifestyle), self-esteem, health, autonomy, and school connectedness.

Month-of-Birth Effects on Skills and Skill Formation

We estimate month-of-birth effects on cognitive and noncognitive skills, as well as factors relevant to skill formation. Our estimates indicate that younger students in a given grade cohort have lower cognitive and noncognitive skills. To shed light on the underlying mechanisms, we also examine children's time use and interpersonal relationships. We i¬ nd evidence of compensatory investment in cognitive skills by younger children, however, they are also more likely to have poor-quality relationships with their classmates and teachers, which may harm the long-term development of noncognitive skills. Our i¬ ndings on skill formation have implications for efi¬ ciency and equity.

Early effects of COVID-19 on physical activity and screen time use among elementary school students in Columbus, New Mexico.

Adherence to national physical activity guidelines among youth ages 6-11 in the United States is low. The emergence of COVID-19 and the public health measures implemented in response may have decreased children’s physical activity even further. We conducted an online survey among parents of students attending Columbus Elementary School in Columbus, New Mexico, a rural community on the US-Mexico border, to assess changes in children’s physical activity and screen time use from summer 2019 to summer 2020. We also sought to identify important covariates. All parents (N = 55) and children (N = 87) identified as Hispanic; most parents were born in Mexico, while most children were born in the United States. Most parents (79.3%) reported a decrease in their children’s physical activity from 2019 to 2020, and the vast majority of these parents reported that the changes were due to COVID-19 home confinement. The mean number of days children were physically active for >60 minutes significantly decreased, while daily screen time use increased. Having parents born in Mexico, infrequent family meals (<3/week), and not having community spaces for physical activity close by protected children from decreases in their level of physical activity from 2019 to 2020. Home-based exercise may serve as a suitable method of physical activity when public health responses to COVID-19 restrict community spaces. Future interventions should also be mindful of the role that parental nativity and related cultural factors may play in children’s physical activity levels.

Experiencing Childhood in the Context of Societal Academic Expectations.

The present paper discusses in part the findings from the first author’s master’s dissertation exploring the experience of childhood in the context of increased academic expectations in society, with special reference to Kerala, India. The objectives were to understand how academic expectations on children shape their childhoods and to document children’s time use and daily lives. A mixed research design was chosen: in-depth interviews were supplemented by a quantitative study on the time allocations of children for different activities. Triangulation of data was done by interviewing three groups of participants: children (n = 10), parents (n = 8), and key informants (n = 3) selected through convenience and purposive sampling. The qualitative data and time-use data are from separate samples. The latter study was conducted on fifth and sixth graders (N = 320) from the Kozhikode district of Kerala. Children’s voices indicated an over-emphasis on academic achievement from different quarters: parents, teachers, and peers. This is reflected in their day-to-day conversations, peer cultures, and daily pursuits. Findings from the time-use study supported the qualitative data: routines of children predominantly revolved around academic activities (35% of 24 hours, including time at school), and little time was devoted to physical play (5.67%). Parents’ voices corroborated these findings and gave insights into the children’s internalization of societal beliefs regarding academic achievement. Inputs from the key informants helped understand the development of the societal beliefs and practices that perpetuate a preoccupation with educational attainment in the community, and the adverse psycho-social impact it has on the children in this context.

Patterns of Time Use among 12-Year-Old Children and Their Life Satisfaction: A Gender and Cross-Country Comparison.

Despite the importance of children’s time use to their quality of life, relatively few international comparative studies have focused on the patterns of children’s time use and their relationship with quality of life. This study, therefore, aimed to examine the typologies of time use among 12-year-old children by gender and their relationship with their quality of life. We used the second wave of data from the International Survey of Children’s Well-Being collected from 16 countries. Children’s time use, gender, satisfaction with time use, and life satisfaction were included as the key variables. Latent class analysis using MPLUS 7.0 was utilized. Gender differences in the classification of time-use patterns were identified. Three latent classes (G1, G2, and G3) were identified for girls. Overall high activity group (G1) had the highest level of satisfaction, whereas family helpers (G3) had the lowest level of satisfaction with their time use and life in general. Boys, however, were classified into four classes (B1, B2, B3, and B4). Overall high activity group (B4) had the highest levels of satisfaction with their time use and life in general. The results show that children who actively engage in various activities experience the most satisfaction with their lives and time. Substantial gender differences in time use, particularly around typical gender roles (e.g., housework and family caring), are noteworthy. Programs and policies that encourage children to reduce digital time and enhance activities in other areas are also discussed.

Demographic, parental and home environment correlates of traditional and mobile screen time in preschool‐aged children

Research on the correlates of screen time in young children, that could be targeted in future interventions to improve healthy development, has primarily focused on TV viewing with little consideration of mobile devices. The objectives of this study were to examine the associations between a range of demographic, parental, and home environment correlates and preschool-aged children's TV/video viewing, video/computer game playing, and total screen time across traditional and mobile devices. The results of this cross-sectional study are based on 106 preschool-aged children (3-5 years) and their parents recruited in 2018 in Edmonton, Alberta. Children's and parental demographic information, home characteristics, and information about parental and children's screen time use was measured using a parent questionnaire. Simple and multiple linear regression models were conducted. Each additional hour/day of parental screen time was associated with 12 (95%CI = 5.2, 19.8) minutes/day of children's TV/video, 6 (95%CI = 1.5, 11.0), minutes/day of video/computer game playing, and 19 (95%CI = 8.9, 29.2) minutes/day of total screen time. Additionally, significant associations of technology interference and presence of electronics in the bedroom with children's screen time were attenuated in the multiple regression models. Parental screen time appears important to target in future family-based screen time interventions and initiatives. Future studies should explore potential mediating or moderating variables between parental screen time and children's screen time.

“Children's time use in immigrant and native families: National evidence from Australia”

Although numerous studies have looked closely at determinants of developmental outcomes for children of immigrants, few studies have examined these children's time use at the national level, and even fewer have focused on early childhood. This study investigates the role of familial immigration background on children's time use using three waves of large-scale data (from age 4–9) from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. Results showed that children in immigrant families spent more time reading than children in native families, whereas children in native families spent more time in non-structured social and other activities. Importantly, the differences found between children in immigrant and native families were similar on weekdays and weekends when children are free from institutionalized routines. Furthermore, the differences in time use between children in immigrant and native families were found mostly for children of immigrants from non-Anglophone countries. Finally, differences in time use between children in immigrant and native families did not change as children aged. Policy and theoretical implications are discussed.

Unequal childhoods in China: Parental education and children's time use.

Drawing on Lareau's binary conceptualization of parenting as concerted cultivation and accomplishment of natural growth, we examine how parental background determines the degree to which the two parenting practices are realized in China. To do so, we examine how parental education shapes children's weekly time use patterns on planned activities (academic and nonacademic) and unplanned activities. Using multi-level mixed-effects linear models based on the 2014 China Education Panel Survey, we find that parental education is positively associated with concerted cultivation, with children spending more hours on both planned academic and nonacademic activities, and negatively associated with accomplishment of natural growth, with children spending more hours on unplanned activities. The link between parental education and children's time use patterns is partly explained by parents' educational expectations for their children, parental supervision, parental support, and economic investments on education.

School's out: Parenting stress and screen time use in school-age children during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Background During the COVID-19 pandemic, millions of children abruptly moved to online schooling, which required high levels of parental involvement. Family routines were disrupted, potentially increasing parental stress, and may be reflected in greater media screen time use in children.Objectives To determine whether (1) parenting styles and (2) parenting stress were associated with children's screen time use during the pandemic compared to the pre-pandemic period.Methods Parents (> 18 years of age) were recruited to complete an online survey regarding changes in their children's (6–12 years) screen time use and daily activities before and during the pandemic. Stress and parental involvement were assessed using the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and Alabama Parenting Questionnaires respectively. General linear models assessed whether parenting style and parent stress were associated with children's screen time during the pandemic, adjusting for demographic variables and daily activities.Results 104 parents were enrolled, and 73 (70.2%) parents completed the surveys. Children's screen time (e.g., watching television and playing video games) increased significantly, from 2.6 to 5.9h a day (p = .001) during pandemic-related school closures. Fewer changes in children's screen time use were significantly associated with greater parental involvement (p = .017). Parent stress (p = .018) significantly predicted children's screen time use. Lower household income was associated with increased hours of screen time in both models (both, p < .05).Conclusions: Children's screen time increased significantly during the initial months of the pandemic. Parent stress and parenting styles may be modifiable risk factors to promote children's well-being during the ongoing pandemic.

A child's day: A comprehensive analysis of change in children's time use in the UKKillianMullanBristol University Press, Sociology of Children and Families series. ISBN: 978‐1529201703, 212 pp

A child's day: A comprehensive analysis of change in children's time use in the UKKillianMullanBristol University Press, Sociology of Children and Families series. ISBN: 978‐1529201703, 212 pp

Gender differences in child and adolescent daily activities: A cross-national time use study

This study used 2009–2015 time-diary data to examine gender differences in daily activities among children and adolescents aged 10–17 in Finland, Spain and the UK ( N = 3517). In all three countries, boys were significantly more involved in screen-based activities and exercising and girls in domestic work, non-screen educational activities and personal care. Gender differences in socializing time were only significant in the UK, with girls socializing more than boys. Gender gaps within countries were largest in domestic work (UK: 60%; Finland: 58%; Spain: 48%) and exercising (UK: 57%; Finland: 36%; Spain: 27%), followed by educational time (UK: 35%; Finland: 34%; Spain: 18%) and screen-based activities (UK: 31%; Finland: 16%; Spain: 16%), and lower in personal care (UK: 27%; Finland: 21%; Spain: 14%) and socializing (UK; 21%; Finland: 13%; Spain: 6%). Two-way country-gender interactions in children’s activities were statistically significant when comparing Spain and the UK on screen-based activities, socializing, and personal care, with larger gender gaps in the UK than in Spain. By contrast, gender differences in child time use between Finland and either Spain or UK were not statistically significant. The complex role of national contexts and life-course stages in shaping gendered time-use patterns is discussed.

Japanese adolescents' time use: The role of household income and parental education.

BACKGROUNDHow children spend their day is closely linked to their social and developmental outcomes. Children’s time use is associated with their parents’ educational and economic capital, making time use a potential reproduction channel for socioeconomic inequalities.OBJECTIVEWe evaluate the correlation of natal-family economic resources, parents’ education, and children’s daily time use in Japan.METHODSAnalysing data from a 2006 Japanese time use survey, we use natal-family income, parental education, and the interaction between them to predict in-school and afterschool study time, leisure time, and sleep time for children aged 10–18.RESULTSChildren from families with higher incomes and more-educated parents spend a longer time studying after school and less time on sleep and leisure. Parental income and mothers’ and fathers’ education are all independently associated with children’s daily patterns.CONCLUSIONOur findings suggest that available resources and parental education are important in shaping children’s daily routines and, through these routines, their eventual socioeconomic outcomes.CONTRIBUTIONThis is the first article to simultaneously assess the impact of income and parental education on children’s study, leisure, and sleep time. It is also the first paper to analyse children’s time use and their natal-family characteristics in Japan.

Inequalities in Children's Experiences of Home Learning during the COVID-19 Lockdown in England.

This paper combines novel data on the time use, home‐learning practices and economic circumstances of families with children during the COVID‐19 lockdown with pre‐lockdown data from the UK Time Use Survey to characterise the time use of children and how it changed during lockdown, and to gauge the extent to which changes in time use and learning practices during this period are likely to reinforce the already large gaps in educational attainment between children from poorer and better‐off families. We find considerable heterogeneity in children's learning experiences – amount of time spent learning, activities undertaken during this time and availability of resources to support learning. Concerningly, but perhaps unsurprisingly, this heterogeneity is strongly associated with family income and in some instances more so than before lockdown. Furthermore, our analysis suggests that any impacts of inequalities in time spent learning between poorer and richer children are likely to be compounded by inequalities not only in learning resources available at home, but also in those provided by schools.

Month-of-Birth Effects on Skills and Skill Formation

We estimate month-of-birth effects on cognitive and noncognitive skills, as well as factors relevant to skill formation. Our estimates indicate that younger students in a given grade cohort have lower cognitive and noncognitive skills. To shed light on the underlying mechanisms, we also examine children's time use and interpersonal relationships. We find evidence of compensatory investment in cognitive skills by younger children, however, they are also more likely to have poor-quality relationships with their classmates and teachers, which may harm the long-term development of noncognitive skills. Our findings on skill formation have implications for efficiency and equity.