Time In Shelter Research Articles

Unconditional cash transfers reduce homelessness

Homelessness is an economic and social crisis. In a cluster-randomized controlled trial, we address a core cause of homelessness-lack of money-by providing a one-time unconditional cash transfer of CAD$7,500 to each of 50 individuals experiencing homelessness, with another 65 as controls in Vancouver, BC. Exploratory analyses showed that over 1 y, cash recipients spent fewer days homeless, increased savings and spending with no increase in temptation goods spending, and generated societal net savings of $777 per recipient via reduced time in shelters. Additional experiments revealed public mistrust toward the ability of homeless individuals to manage money and demonstrated interventions to increase public support for a cash transfer policy using counter-stereotypical or utilitarian messaging. Together, this research offers a new approach to address homelessness and provides insights into homelessness reduction policies.

COVID-19 Restrictions and Adolescent Cigarette and E-cigarette Use in California

Shelter-in-place orders altered facilitators and barriers to tobacco use (e.g., outlet closures, restricted social gatherings). This study examined whether the duration of time in shelter in place and compliance with different shelter-in-place orders influenced adolescent cigarette and E-cigarette use and how the use may differ by demographic characteristics. Shelter-in-place policy data obtained from government websites were merged with cross-sectional 2020 survey data on adolescents in California. Treatment variables included the proportion of time in shelter in place and self-reported compliance with shelter-in-place orders (for essential businesses and retail spaces and social and outdoor contexts). Multilevel logit models for dichotomous past 6-month cigarette and E-cigarette use and multilevel negative binomial regression models for past 6-month frequency of use were used. Moderation analyses were conducted on demographic measures. The sample included 1,196 adolescents (mean age=15.8 years, age range=13-19 years, 49.2% female, 50.0% White). Analyses were conducted in 2022. No associations were found between the proportion of time in shelter in place and outcomes. Shelter-in-place compliance with essential business and retail space orders was associated with lower odds of using cigarettes and E-cigarettes in the past 6 months. Compliance with social and outdoor context-related orders were associated with lower odds of using E-cigarettes and fewer days using cigarettes and E-cigarettes. Being aged ≥18 years moderated the associations between essential business/retail space and social/outdoor context-related shelter-in-place compliance orders and past 6-month frequency of cigarette smoking. Findings support tailored interventions for less compliant and older adolescents for future pandemic mitigation measures.

Factors Associated with Shelter Dog Euthanasia versus Live Release by Adoption or Transfer in the United States

Simple SummaryUnited States animal shelters care for unwanted dogs until they are adopted, transferred to another facility, or euthanized. Previous studies have determined that certain phenotypic characteristics can be used to predict the outcome of shelter dogs. However, these earlier studies have typically been limited by sample size, shelter geographic location, and/or the number of shelters participating in the study, thus reducing generalized applicability of the results. The aim of this study was to test if certain characteristics of dogs in shelters predict the decision for those dogs to be euthanized rather than experience a live release by adoption or transfer. This study may be valuable to shelter staff because utilizing such phenotypic information can help shelter employees focus adoptability protocols, such as socialization and training programs, on dogs with a greater chance of being euthanized.The objective of this study was to identify phenotypic characteristics predicting the outcome of euthanasia for dogs entering shelters compared to live release. Individual dog records for 2017 were requested from shelters in five states (Mississippi, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Colorado, and Oklahoma) receiving municipal funding and using electronic records. Duplicate dogs were removed and records from 17 shelters were merged into a dataset of 25,047 unique dogs with variables of breed, gender, coat color, size, age, region, and time in shelter. Only data from dogs with the potential to be adopted (n = 19,514) were analyzed. From these data, a simple random sample of 6200 dogs was used for modelling. Variables describing coat length, estimated adult size, and skull type were imputed from the breed description. A Cox proportional hazard model with a random effect of shelter was developed for the outcome of euthanasia using manual forward variable selection and significance for variable retention at alpha = 0.05. A size by geographic region interaction was associated with the hazard of euthanasia (p = 0.0204). Additionally, age group and skull type were both associated with euthanasia compared to live release (p < 0.0001). The results of this study indicate that phenotypic characteristics of dogs are predictive of their hazard for euthanasia in shelters.

Shelter competition between mature non-indigenous western tubenose goby (Proterorhinus semilunaris) and immature invasive round goby (Neogobius melanostomus) for plants and rocks

Non-indigenous western tubenose goby Proterorhinus semilunaris and round goby Neogobius melanostomus have rapidly increased in numbers and displaced native ichthyofauna in invaded ecosystems. This displacement has been predominantly linked to competition for resources and shelters. Similarly, P. semilunaris was displaced in many localities after introduction of N. melanostomus but the mechanisms of displacement are still not clear. Within the present study shelter competition laboratory studies were completed with P. semilunaris as resident fish before the introduction of either a sized matched P. semilunaris or N. melanostomus intruder. The fish competed for shelters which resembled a rock or plant. Time in shelter and accounts of direct aggression, indirect aggression and the guarding of shelter were also recorded for each fish. Shelter competitions showed P. semilunaris spent more time in plant shelters but N. melanostomus spent similar time periods in both shelter types. In intraspecific pairings, resident fish spent significantly more time in the shelters and exhibited significantly higher direct aggression and shelter guarding, especially for plant shelters. In interspecific pairings, there was no significant difference in the time spent in shelter by resident P. semilunaris and intruder N. melanostomus in either shelter type at day or night. However, in interspecific pairings, the intruder fish showed significantly higher levels of all aggression types. In intraspecific pairing, the concept of ‘resident wins’ was observed. However, in interspecific pairings, N. melanostomus was able to displace the resident fish. The higher aggression of N. melanostomus in shelter competition could account for greater invasive success and the reduction of P. semilunaris observed in the wild.

Shelter Cats: From Admission to Adoption—Ethical and Welfare Concerns

Abstract Despite the growing popularity of cats as pets, many cats end up housed for long periods of time in shelters. These shelters are increasingly under the spotlight by local communities in the way in which they deal with problematic issues, for they may be seen as an example or as target of criticism. In regards to cat (re)homing there are several relevant welfare and ethical issues. Shelters should have a proactive and well-defined strategy to improve welfare and reduce the number of sheltered cats. Those with the authority to make decisions should consider the available resources and hold in perspective the viewpoints of others, especially that of the cat. The challenge is to avoid judgments based on our own quality of life standards which may lead to decisions based on emotional factors to manage the situation. Is it moral for humans to poses the power to determine a cat’s fate? Despite not having an answer for what is the right solution, the way to proceed should be clearly defined. If there is a strategy and a plan, there is an opportunity to readjust and improve. What are the main reasons for all these problems? Most of the related questions don’t have direct answers. However, instead of reacting in order to solve the problem, we should proactively focus on prevention, mainly through population control and education, knowing that what seems good and right at that moment might be considered wrong and obsolete in a near future, in the light of the development of scientific knowledge and societal values.

Rabbit Breeding and Welfare - Emphasis on Housing Conditions

In order to understand the real need for more space or collective cages in the rabbit breeding is necessary to establish parameters to measure what is good or bad for the animals and not for the humans. In nature, rabbits spend most of their time in shelters or the search for feed. This behavior does not reproduce in captivity, because, the animals have restricted space. However, the questions are: Would the animals like more space even having feed always available? Would the animals even being protected would like to live in groups? In this sense, the most studies show that the group rearing in cages – for growing rabbits up 84 days – is the best choice to satisfy rabbit social behavior. In reproducing animals, alternative housing systems, that permit does to separate themselves from their litters, should be developed. So far the individual cages seem to be the most suitable for the does.

Environmentally relevant concentrations of tramadol and citalopram alter behaviour of an aquatic invertebrate

Environmental pollution by pharmaceutically active compounds, used in quantities similar to those of pesticides and other organic micropollutants, is increasingly recognized as a major threat to the aquatic environment. These compounds are only partly removed from wastewaters and, despite their low concentrations, directly and indirectly affect behaviour of freshwater organisms in natural habitats. The aim of this study was to behaviourally assess the effects of an opioid painkiller (tramadol) and antidepressant drug (citalopram) on behaviour patterns of a clonal model species, marbled crayfish. Animals exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of both tested compounds (∼1 μg l−1) exhibited significantly lower velocity and shorter distance moved than controls. Crayfish exposed to tramadol spent more time in shelters. Results were obtained by a simple and rapid method recommended as suitable for assessment of behaviour in aquatic organisms exposed to single pollutants and combinations.

Behavioral buffering of global warming in a cold-adapted lizard.

Alpine lizards living in restricted areas might be particularly sensitive to climate change. We studied thermal biology of Iberolacerta cyreni in high mountains of central Spain. Our results suggest that I. cyreni is a cold‐adapted thermal specialist and an effective thermoregulator. Among ectotherms, thermal specialists are more threatened by global warming than generalists. Alpine lizards have no chance to disperse to new suitable habitats. In addition, physiological plasticity is unlikely to keep pace with the expected rates of environmental warming. Thus, lizards might rely on their behavior in order to deal with ongoing climate warming. Plasticity of thermoregulatory behavior has been proposed to buffer the rise of environmental temperatures. Therefore, we studied the change in body and environmental temperatures, as well as their relationships, for I. cyreni between the 1980s and 2012. Air temperatures have increased more than 3.5°C and substrate temperatures have increased by 6°C in the habitat of I. cyreni over the last 25 years. However, body temperatures of lizards have increased less than 2°C in the same period, and the linear relationship between body and environmental temperatures remains similar. These results show that alpine lizards are buffering the potential impact of the increase in their environmental temperatures, most probably by means of their behavior. Body temperatures of I. cyreni are still cold enough to avoid any drop in fitness. Nonetheless, if warming continues, behavioral buffering might eventually become useless, as it would imply spending too much time in shelter, losing feeding, and mating opportunities. Eventually, if body temperature exceeds the thermal optimum in the near future, fitness would decrease abruptly.

The impact of streetlights on an aquatic invasive species: Artificial light at night alters signal crayfish behaviour

Artificial light at night (ALAN) can significantly alter the behaviour, communication and orientation of animals, and will potentially interact with other stressors to affect biodiversity. Invasive, non-native species are one of the largest threats to freshwater biodiversity; however, the impact of ALAN on such species is unknown. This study assessed the effects of ALAN at ecologically relevant levels on the behaviour of a globally widespread invasive species, the signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus). In experimental aquaria, crayfish were exposed to periods of daylight, control (<0.1lx) and street-lit nights to test two hypotheses: (1) signal crayfish under natural conditions are nocturnal animals, spending more time in shelter during the day, whilst active and interacting during the night, and (2) ALAN reduces crayfish activity and intraspecific interactions, whilst increasing their propensity to use shelter. Our results confirm that signal crayfish are largely nocturnal, showing peak activity and interaction levels during control nights, whilst taking refuge during daylight hours. When exposed to short-term simulated light pollution from a streetlight at night however, activity and interactions with conspecifics were significantly reduced compared to control nights, whilst time spent in shelters increased. By altering crayfish behaviour, ALAN may change the ecosystem impacts of invasive crayfish in the wild. This study is the first to show an impact of ALAN on the behaviour of an invasive, non-native species, and provides information for the management of invasive crayfish in areas where ALAN is prevalent.

Epidemiology of Dog and Cat Abandonment in Spain (2008-2013).

Simple SummaryIn this paper we wanted to estimate the incidence of abandonment, as well as the general profile of dogs and cats entering animal shelters in our country. Also, we wanted to test the impact of identification on the recovery of dogs that had entered animal shelters. More than 100,000 dogs and more than 30,000 cats enter animal shelters annually in Spain. We observed a seasonal effect in the number of admissions in cats. A considerable percentage remained at the shelter or was euthanized. We found that identification of dogs with a microchip increased by 3-fold the likelihood of them being returned to the owner.Millions of pets are abandoned worldwide every year, which is an important animal welfare and financial problem. This paper was divided into three studies. Our first two studies were designed as a national survey of animal shelters to profile the population of stray dogs and cats, as well as to gather information on both relinquishment and adoption. The aim of our third study was to test the impact of identification on the recovery of dogs entering animal shelters. Studies one and two indicate that more than 100,000 dogs and more than 30,000 cats enter animal shelters annually in Spain. We observed a seasonal effect in the number of admissions in cats. Two-thirds of dogs and cats entering shelters were found as strays, while the rest were relinquished directly to the shelter. Most pets admitted to animal shelters were adult, non-purebred, and without a microchip, with the majority of dogs being medium sized. Adult dogs spent significantly more time in shelters than puppies. While most animals were either adopted or recovered by their owner, a considerable percentage remained at the shelter or was euthanized. The identification of dogs with a microchip increased by 3-fold the likelihood of them being returned to the owner.

Influence of predator identity on the strength of predator avoidance responses in lobsters

The American lobster, Homarus americanus, is an important benthic consumer in the Gulf of Maine and supports an extremely valuable fishery in New England and eastern Canada. Meanwhile, there is substantial interest in restoring large predator fish species to the Gulf of Maine, and these predators may impact lobster populations both by consuming them and by inducing them to alter their behavior. Lobster tethering experiments were used to examine the susceptibility of a range of lobster size classes to predation in Saco Bay, Maine. The most susceptible sizes of lobsters were then exposed to three different fish predators (Atlantic striped bass Morone saxatilis, Atlantic cod Gadus morhua, and sea raven Hemitripterus americanus) separately in experimental mesocosm tanks. Juvenile lobsters moved less and spent more time in shelter when in the presence of cod or sea raven. By contrast, striped bass did not induce lobsters to alter their behavior. Striped bass are highly mobile, active pursuit predators, which are thought to induce weaker behavioral responses in prey than sit-and-pursue predators like sea ravens. Thus, differences in lobster sheltering behavior corresponded with differences in predator foraging behavior. These predator-induced changes in behavior can result in less foraging activity, which may translate into reduced lobster growth and reproduction. Efforts to model marine communities and ecosystems will benefit from a more holistic understanding of whether predators induced prey to modify their foraging behavior and habitat usage.

Eliciting an immune response reduces sprint speed in a lizard

Predators and pathogens can diminish organisms’ fitness, and consequently natural selection favors antipredatory and antiparasitic strategies. Nevertheless, as both kinds of strategies consume resources, animals cannot maximize investment in both strategies simultaneously, which should lead to trade-offs between the two. Accordingly, we hypothesize that there is a trade-off between sprint capacity and immune response, which are among the most important antipredatory and antiparasitic strategies, respectively, of many animals. Consequently, we predict that animals eliciting an immune response should reduce their sprint capacity. We experimentally tested this prediction in the lizard Psammodromus algirus. A group of lizards was inoculated with the antigen LPS (lipopolysaccharide of the cell wall of Escherichia coli), which activates the immune system, whereas the other group (control) was inoculated with phosphate buffer, which has no physiological effect. Before and after the inoculations, we filmed sprint capacity of lizards, estimating the maximal sprint speed. Males were faster than females before the activation of their immune system. Nonetheless, males’ sprint speed diminished after the inoculation of LPS, whereas females’ did not. Therefore, our results support the hypothesis of a trade-off between sprint speed and immune response in males. Consequently, male lizards combating a pathogen may suffer either higher risk of predation, or reduced fitness if they avoid this risk by spending more time in shelter.

Failure of predator conditioning: an experimental study of predator avoidance in brown trout (Salmo trutta)

AbstractMany studies have documented that hatchery‐reared salmonids generally have inferior survival after being stocked compared with wild conspecifics, hatchery and wild salmonids have been observed to differ in their antipredator responses. The response of brown trout (Salmo trutta) juveniles (0+) of differing backgrounds to a live predator was compared in two experiments. First, the antipredator behaviour of predator‐naïve hatchery‐reared brown trout and wild‐exposed brown trout were assessed in behavioural trials which lasted for eight days. Second, predator‐naïve and predator‐conditioned hatchery‐reared brown trout were assessed in identical behavioural trials. Brown trout were ‘predator‐conditioned’ by being held in a stream‐water aquarium with adult Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and adult brown trout for two days prior to behavioural trials. Predator‐conditioned hatchery‐reared brown trout spent more time in shelters in the trial aquaria than predator‐naïve hatchery‐reared fish, but did not differ in time spent in the predator‐free area. Predator conditioning may account for the increased time spent in the shelter, but does not appear to have affected time spent in the predator‐free area. However, even if significant alteration in behaviour can be noted in the laboratory, the response might not be appropriate in the wild.

Cats in Animal Shelters: Exploring the Common Perception that Black Cats Take Longer to Adopt

Secondary analysis of pre-existing data from two Colorado animal shelters was conducted to assess the impact of shelter cats' coat color on time required for adoption. One shelter included adult cats and kittens, the second shelter included kittens only. Results indicated that black cats, regardless of age or sex, require the longest time to adopt. They are followed by primarily black cats with other colors. Other color cats take less time to adopt than either black cats or primary black cats with other colors. This additional time in shelters negatively impacts the health and therefore, the welfare, of black shelter cats. Factual, rather than anecdotal knowledge about black cat adoption rates may allow shelters to direct additional resources into strategies designed to increase black cat adoption rates and decrease time black cats spend in shelters.

Elevated CO2 affects the behavior of an ecologically and economically important coral reef fish

We tested the effect of near-future CO2 levels (≈490, 570, 700, and 960 μatm CO2) on the olfactory responses and activity levels of juvenile coral trout, Plectropomus leopardus, a piscivorous reef fish that is also one of the most important fisheries species on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Juvenile coral trout reared for 4 weeks at 570 μatm CO2 exhibited similar sensory responses and behaviors to juveniles reared at 490 μatm CO2 (control). In contrast, juveniles reared at 700 and 960 μatm CO2 exhibited dramatically altered sensory function and behaviors. At these higher CO2 concentrations, juveniles became attracted to the odor of potential predators, as has been observed in other reef fishes. They were more active, spent less time in shelter, ventured further from shelter, and were bolder than fish reared at 490 or 570 μatm CO2. These results demonstrate that behavioral impairment of coral trout is unlikely if pCO2 remains below 600 μatm; however, at higher levels, there are significant impacts on juvenile performance that are likely to affect survival and energy budgets, with consequences for predator–prey interactions and commercial fisheries.

The Impact of Shelter Use and Housing Placement on Mortality Hazard for Unaccompanied Adults and Adults in Family Households Entering New York City Shelters: 1990–2002

This study examines mortality among New York City (NYC) homeless shelter users, assessing the relationships between mortality hazard and time in shelter, patterns of homelessness, and subsequent housing exits for both adults in families and single adults. Administrative records from the NYC shelter system were matched with death records from the Social Security Administration for 160,525 persons. Crude mortality rates and life tables were calculated, and survival analyses were undertaken using these data. Life expectancy was 64.2 and 68.6 years for single adult males and single adult females, respectively, and among adults in families, life expectancy was 67.2 and 70.1 years for males and females, respectively. For both groups, exits to stable housing (subsidized or non-subsidized) were associated with reduced mortality hazard. And while mortality hazard was substantially reduced for the time adults were in shelters, extended shelter use patterns were associated with increased mortality hazard. Differences between single homelessness and family homelessness extend to disparities in mortality rates. Although causal links cannot be established here, results suggest that, for both subgroups of the homeless population, prompt resolution of homelessness and availability of housing interventions may contribute to reduced mortality.

Growth history and intrinsic factors influence risk assessment at a critical life transition for a fish

Making the appropriate decision in the face of predation risk dictates the fate of prey, and predation risk is highest at life history boundaries such as settlement. At the end of the larval phase, most coral reef fishes enter patches of reef containing novel predators. Since vision is often obscured in the complex surroundings, chemical information released from damaged conspecific is used to forewarn prey of an active predator. However, larvae enter the reef environment with their own feeding and growth histories, which will influence their motivation to feed and take risks. The present study explored the link between recent growth, feeding history, current performance and behavioural risk taking in newly settling stages of a coral reef damselfish (Pomacentrus amboinensis). Older and larger juveniles in good body condition had a stronger response to chemical alarm cues of injured conspecifics; these fish spent a longer time in shelter and displayed a more dramatic decrease in foraging behaviour than fish in lower body condition. Feeding experiments supported these findings and emphasized the importance of body condition in affecting risk assessment. Evidently, larval growth history and body condition influences the likelihood of taking risks under the threat of predation immediately after settlement, thereby affecting the probability of survival in P. amboinensis.

The behaviour of domestic cats in a shelter: Residence time, density and sex ratio

Many cats that are rendered to a shelter fail to find a new home. Older and other less desirable cats may face a significant amount of time in the shelter prior to adoption. Therefore, the present study compared the behaviour of domestic cats subjected to different lengths of time, room density (RD) and sex ratio in a shelter. Forty-six cats from a local shelter (Porto, Portugal) were included in the study. All subjects lived in group housing enclosures. Each cat's behaviour was recorded during 5 min, on every other day and on three separate occasions. During each session the observer was present in the room and the following behaviours were investigated: grooming; inactivity; eating/drinking; friendly interactions; negative encounters and active behaviour. A significant greater time spent in inactivity (TSI) and time spent in negative encounters (TSNE) were found ( P = 0.035 and P = 0.026, respectively) in cats that remained in the shelter for 7 years or longer relative to those that were housed for a shorter period of time. Time spent eating (TSE) was significantly ( P = 0.048) shorter in cats that spent at least 7 years compared to those that lived in the shelter for a shorter period of time. Eating frequency (EF) was significantly greater in cats sheltered for less than 1 year, relative to those in confinement for a minimum of 7 years ( P = 0.044). Grooming frequency (GF) and time spent grooming (TSG) were significantly greatest in cats housed in rooms with a F/M ratio of 1–2, followed by a F/M ratio greater than two and lastly a F/M ratio smaller than 1 ( P = 0.036 and P = 0.035, respectively). TSI was shortest in rooms containing 1–2 females per male when compared to rooms with a F/M ratio of less than one ( P = 0.006) and larger ( P = 0.014) than two. TSI was significantly greater in RDs above 0.5 cats/m 2 ( P = 0.046). It is therefore possible that lengthy periods of time spent in the shelter may be associated with decreased activity levels, eating behaviour and a greater tendency towards agonistic interactions. To our knowledge this is the first study to compare the behaviour of group housed cats with the sex ratio among enclosures. Further research concerning the influence of group composition on behaviour will likely contribute to improve the welfare of cats in confinement. This study also emphasizes the need for early adoptions and improvement of the quality of life of cats that are forced to spend long periods of time in a rescue shelter.

Les incidences de la désorganisation des enveloppes collectives sur le moi de l’enfant de 9 a 13 ans dans l’expérience de la guerre (Liban – juillet/août 2006)

The objective of this study is to analyze the effects of the disorganization of the collective envelopes (deficit of social time, of socialization, of group memory, of a common future, etc.) on the psychological envelopes supporting the organization of time, space, thought, memory and dream in the child. The study proposes that it is not war in itself that is the cause of the child's trauma, but rather the destruction of social envelopes, and in particular the destructuring of the symbolic. When the anxiety of the present is what determines the future, when space-time dimensions are in chaos, when the social field is fraught with turbulence, what happens to the child? Using semi-structured clinical interviews with 30 Lebanese children aged 9 to 13 years (who were 6 to 10 years old during the 2006 conflict), exhibiting post-war symptoms, we have analyzed the disruption of certain collective envelopes, namely, temporality, cultural space and cross generational encystment. We were able to observe the following: wartime has a particular rhythm. Explosions replace the clock, noise replaces words. A rift occurs between external time (street time) that can no longer constitute a functional envelope, and internal time (shelter time) that is relegated to a vegetative state. The space of the Lebanese community is a space of conflict. The collective memory is fragmented in the absence of institutions supporting historical archiving. An identity by disavowal is thus established in the sub-group. The child is literally caught between two fires: withdrawal into oneself or community rifts. War, coupled with migration, leads to a loss of the symbolic through mourning and misapprehension. In the memory of the family, these circumstances create confusion and lack of differentiation, transforming the child into a support of this distress, leading him to be set in pathological violence as a form of self-defence. Two children drawings are presented, illustrating their perception of war.

Exiting Shelter: An Epidemiological Analysis of Barriers and Facilitators for Families

This study examines the role of individual- and family-level factors in predicting the length of shelter stays for homeless families. Interviews were conducted with all families exiting one of six emergency family shelters in Worcester, Massachusetts, between November 2006, and November 2007. Analyses, using an ordinary least squares regression model, find that families with a positive alcohol or drug screen in the year prior stay 85 days longer than those without a positive screen; families leaving shelter with a housing subsidy stay 66 days longer than those leaving without a subsidy. Demographic factors, education, employment, health, and mental health are not found to predict shelter stay duration. Consistent with prior research, housing resources relate to families' time in shelter; with the exception of a positive substance abuse screen, individual-level problems are not related to their time in shelter. Efforts to expand these resources at the local, state, and national levels are a high priority.