Printing Time Research Articles

Correlating FDM printing parameters with mechanical properties and surface quality of PLA printouts

Abstract This study explores the correlation between four critical Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) parameters—extrusion temperature, layer height, print speed, and infill density—and the mechanical properties and surface quality of PLA (Polylactic Acid) printouts. The mechanical properties, including Young’s modulus, tensile strength, and bending strength, were evaluated alongside surface roughness and dimensional accuracy. The results indicate that extrusion temperatures between 200°C and 220°C optimize mechanical performance, enhancing tensile strength and bending strength, while smaller layer heights (0.1 mm) improve surface smoothness but increase print time. Moderate print speeds (around 60 mm/s) offer the best balance between strength and efficiency, while higher infill densities (above 80%) enhance mechanical properties, increasing both tensile and bending strength by up to 25%. These findings provide key insights into optimizing FDM printing parameters to achieve improved structural integrity and aesthetic quality in PLA prints.

Improving mechanical properties of 3D printed products through honeycomb structure and deep learning optimization

The use of three-dimensional (3D) Printing has rapidly grown due to its various applications in daily life. However, products made with this technology are not widely adopted because their quality is not yet seen as equal to that of products made with traditional materials. To address this issue, a honeycomb structure model was developed to improve the mechanical properties of the items created using 3D printing technology. This model not only saves materials, but also reduces printing time compared to previous models. The honeycomb structure was designed using a theoretical model, and its components were modified to ensure compatibility with the 3D printing extrusion method. Moreover, deep learning was used to optimise the honeycomb structure model’s boundary conditions by generating contour curves through linear interpolation. This process significantly improved the mechanical strength of the honeycomb structure model compared to structures made using 3D printing technology. The theoretical findings were validated through various material tensile tests conducted under different scenarios. As a result, this model can be used in various industries and products that use 3D printing technology, thanks to the critical role that deep learning in improving its mechanical properties.

Accuracy of occlusal splints printed in different orientations by liquid crystal display technology: an in vitro study.

To evaluate the accuracy of occlusal splints printed in different orientations by liquid crystal display technology. An occlusal splint was digitally designed, and additive manufactured using an LCD printer (Phrozen Sonic 4k, Phrozen) at three orientations relative to the printer bed: 0, 45, and 70 degrees (n=10). The 3D-printed occlusal splints were digitised using a desktop scanner, resulting in experimental meshes. The meshes were analysed in a metrology software program, comparing the experimental ones with the initially designed occlusal splint (trueness) and each other within the same group (precision). The discrepancies were shown in a colour map and the root mean square indicated the magnitude of the total discrepancy between the meshes. Kruskal-Wallis test was used (α=0.05) followed by post-hoc Dunn's test. There was no statistical difference in trueness among the groups (P=0.086); however, splints printed at 70 degrees showed better precision compared to those printed at 0 (P<0.001) and 45 degrees (P<0.001). The splints printed at 0 and 45 degrees exhibited a similar discrepancy pattern, with higher values in the posterior segment-positive on the buccal surface and negative on the lingual surface of molars. In contrast, splints printed at 70 degrees had higher discrepancy values in both anterior and posterior segments, with an inverted pattern on molars. The accuracy of occlusal splints was affected by the different orientation in terms of precision, with 70 degrees resulted in highest precision compared to 0 and 45 degrees. No difference was found in terms of trueness. Higher discrepancies were found located in molars and incisal edge of anterior teeth. 3D-printing using LCD technology stands out for its affordability and good resolution, however the optimal printing angle remains unclear. Vertical positioning allows more objects to fit on the print bed, while horizontal positioning reduces print time. For DLP printers, a 0-degree angle provides good accuracy for occlusal splints, whereas a 90-degree angle results in lower accuracy. This study found that for LCD printers, 0, 45, and 70 degrees had similar trueness, with 70 degrees offering the highest precision. Thus, vertical positioning at 70 degrees can be a safe choice for the accuracy of occlusal splints printed on LCD technology.

Applicability of 3D concrete printing technology in building construction with different architectural design decisions in housing

3D Printing (3DP) technology, one of the layered production methodologies where design and construction configurations can be made with increasing digitalization and Industry 4.0, is one of the leading techniques of the period. 3D Concrete Printing (3DCP) also comes to the fore in the construction industry. The study aims to observe the impact of architectural design decisions on the 3DCP process by developing controlled and consistent design alternatives. Architectural designs developed with different geometric forms in the housing function were subjected to digital planning, 3DCP preparation, and 3DCP prototype final product stages. In the integration of design and 3D concrete printing (3DCP), two key aspects were investigated: (i) the impact of different geometric forms (square, rectangle, hexagon, octagon, circle, and ellipse) on the buildability performance of 3D-printed structures, and (ii) how variations in design details influence printing time, material consumption, cost, and the feasibility of mass production in architectural applications. For the 3DCP process, 3D-printable cementitious mixture was developed, and a 3D printer with dimensions of 100 x 100 x 40 centimeters was used. The results obtained during the printing process were analyzed in comparison with the building evaluation parameters. As a result, the house with circular geometry showed the optimum behavior according to the parameters of buildability, cost, and mass producibility. The circle geometric form provides a 4.2% advantage over the octagon in terms of buildability, a 16.6% advantage over the ellipse in terms of cost, and a 20% advantage over the ellipse in terms of mass producibility.

Optimizing ironing parameters in material extrusion (MEX) technology: enhancing efficiency and performance

This study explores the optimization of ironing parameters in Material Extrusion (MEX) technology, specifically targeting improvements in the mechanical properties of polylactic acid (PLA) printed objects, with a focus on enhancing Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and minimizing printing time. To achieve this, we employed a systematic experimental approach that varied flow rate, path speed, and spacing between passes, followed by a comprehensive statistical analysis using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Our findings indicate that path speed and spacing between passes significantly influence both UTS and printing time, while flow rate has a minor effect within the tested range. Optimal parameters were determined to be a flow rate of 14.34%, path speed of 30 mm/s, and spacing between passes of 0.3 mm, achieving a composite desirability of 0.970537. Validation using the response optimizer feature in Minitab software confirmed a strong correlation between predicted and experimental results. This research provides practical insights for optimizing MEX parameters, contributing to enhanced mechanical properties and efficiency in additive manufacturing processes.

Compressive behavior of additively manufactured lightweight structures: Infill density optimization based on energy absorption diagrams

The use of 3D-printed components as load-bearing structures is widely studied, while their use as energy absorbers constitutes a gap in the additive manufacturing (AM) field. Most of the reported works address the compressive behavior of AM parts up to low strains (<15%), thus omitting many important properties. Therefore, this paper presents the compression characterization of Polylactic Acid (PLA) samples with different infill densities-IDs (10–100% range, with a step of 10%) fabricated by material extrusion (MEX) AM process. The physical (dimensional accuracy, printing time and sample mass) and mechanical (elastic, strength, strain and energy absorption) properties are determined and discussed in detail, along with the failure mechanisms that occur in the samples. Moreover, an ID optimization is performed based on the energy absorption diagrams (EAD), a unique approach in the AM field. The highest values of compressive strength (81 MPa) and modulus (1306.6 MPa) are found for 90%-ID, over 2.2% higher than those obtained for 100%-ID. On the other hand, based on three different approaches, EAD identified 30%-ID as optimal. The 30%-ID samples absorb the largest amount of energy (12 MJ/m3) at the lowest (ideal) peak stress value (23.57 MPa), which is 69.1% lower than that for 100%-ID. At low IDs (<30%), the samples exhibit a brittle behavior, changing to a ductile one with the increase of ID (≥40%). The MEX-printed PLA samples show a dimensional relative error below 0.15%, and the optimization process reduces the amount of filament material by 54.3% and the printing time by 42.7%.

MAGIC matrices: freeform bioprinting materials to support complex and reproducible organoid morphogenesis.

Organoids are powerful models of tissue physiology, yet their applications remain limited due to their relatively simple morphology and high organoid-to-organoid structural variability. To address these limitations we developed a soft, composite yield-stress extracellular matrix that supports optimal organoid morphogenesis following freeform 3D bioprinting of cell slurries at tissue-like densities. The material is designed with two temperature regimes: at 4 °C it exhibits reversible yield-stress behavior to support long printing times without compromising cell viability. When transferred to cell culture at 37 °C, the material cross-links and exhibits similar viscoelasticity and plasticity to basement membrane extracts such as Matrigel. We first characterize the rheological properties of MAGIC matrices that optimize organoid morphogenesis, including low stiffness and high stress relaxation. Next, we combine this material with a custom piezoelectric printhead that allows more reproducible and robust self-organization from uniform and spatially organized tissue "seeds." We apply MAGIC matrix bioprinting for high-throughput generation of intestinal, mammary, vascular, salivary gland, and brain organoid arrays that are structurally similar to those grown in pure Matrigel, but exhibit dramatically improved homogeneity in organoid size, shape, maturation time, and efficiency of morphogenesis. The flexibility of this method and material enabled fabrication of fully 3D microphysiological systems, including perfusable organoid tubes that experience cyclic 3D strain in response to pressurization. Furthermore, the reproducibility of organoid structure increased the statistical power of a drug response assay by up to 8 orders-of-magnitude for a given number of comparisons. Combined, these advances lay the foundation for the efficient fabrication of complex tissue morphologies by canalizing their self-organization in both space and time.

Effect of high-boiling point solvents on inkjet printing of catalyst layers for proton exchange membrane fuel cells

Inkjet printing (IJP) is considered as a promising and flexible method for low cost and drop-on-demand pattern formation in proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells. Although significant advancements have been made in inkjet-printed electrodes, identifying the optimal ink formulations remains challenging due to severe restrictions on the ink properties. Generally, the catalyst layer prepared by IJP using low boiling point solvents (water/alcohol) show reasonable electrochemical performance. However, low boiling point solvents lead to clogging of the printhead nozzle due to fast evaporation of the solvent in the inkjet print head. In this study, high boiling point solvents (propylene glycol (PG) or ethylene glycol (EG)) were used as additives to reduce nozzle clogging and improve printing efficiency. In this context, the relationship between catalyst ink properties, CL microstructure, and electrochemical performance of the MEA is investigated. Results show that printing time is significantly reduced with adding high boiling point solvents in the ink (66.67 % reduction of time with 30 wt% PG). However, an increased amount of additive is detrimental in terms of electrochemical performance due to formation of larger agglomerates, lower porosity of the catalyst layer, and reduced ECSA. The results of this work can be used to develop a strategy to adjust the trade-off between printing time and electrochemical performance of electrodes prepared using IJP.

Comparative Analysis of Topology Optimization Platforms for Additive Manufacturing of Robot Arms

Recently, CAD environments have integrated topology optimization (TO) tools, enabling rapid development and manufacturing of parts with optimized mechanical properties. However, different CAD platforms incorporate TO differently, making a comparative analysis necessary. This study aims to systematically compare the efficiency, material usage, and design quality of five commonly used CAD/TO platforms when applied to the topology optimization of a six degrees of freedom robotic arm. The objective is to identify the key differences in how these platforms influence the final design and manufacturing outcomes. Practical validation of results is provided by printing and assembling optimized components into a fully functional robotic arm. Our findings indicate differences in optimization efficiency, material usage, and print time between analyzed platforms. Strengths and weaknesses of each platform are indicated and recommendations for optimization parameters are provided.

Pengaruh Urutan Pencampuran Pemlastis pada Komponding Karet Terhadap Kinetika Vulkanisasi Menggunakan Model Deng-Isayev dan Kamal-Sorour

Plasticizers play an important role in the rubber industry to facilitate the dispersion of additives into rubber. This research aims to study the effect of plasticizer mixing sequence on vulcanization kinetics. This relates to its effect on printing time and energy, as well as the cost of electricity used. Compound A was made by adding plasticizer at the mastication stage and compound B was made by adding plasticizer at the masterbatch stage. Kinetic parameters were determined using Deng-Isayev and Kamal-Sorour models. The results show that the Deng-Isayev model is closer to the experimental data than the Kamal-Sorour model. Compound A has a k value (3.0635x10-6 sec-1) and cure index (0.8403) slightly lower than compound B with a k value 3.3511x10-6 sec-1 and cure index 0.9260. However, the mixing order of the plasticizers did not significantly affect the vulcanization performance, either the reaction speed constant, reaction order, induction time, optimal vulcanization time, and cure index.

3D printing application for orthopedic pediatric surgery – a systematic review

PurposeThis paper aims to present a systematic review of the latest scientific literature, in the context of pediatric orthopedics, on the development by additive manufacturing of anatomical models, orthoses, surgical guides and prostheses and their clinical applications.Design/methodology/approachFollowing the current guidelines for systematic reviews, three databases (Elsevier Scopus®, Clarivate Web of ScienceTM and USA National Library of Medicine PubMed®) were screened using a representative query to find pertinent documents within the timeframe 2016–2023. Among the information, collected across the reviewed documents, the work focused on the 3D printing workflow involving acquisition, elaboration and fabrication stages.FindingsFollowing the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the authors found 20 studies that fitted the defined criteria. The reviewed studies mostly highlighted the positive impact of additive manufacturing in pediatric orthopedic surgery, particularly in orthotic applications where lightweight, ventilated and cost-effective 3D-printed devices demonstrate efficacy comparable to traditional methods, but also underlined the limitations such as printing errors and high printing times. Among the reviewed studies, material extrusion was the most chosen 3D printing technology to manufacture the typical device, particularly with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first systematic review which annotates, from a more engineering point of view, the latest literature on the admittance of the clinical application of additive manufacturing (and its effects) within typical pediatric orthopedic treatments workflows.

Mechanical Properties and Economic Analysis of Fused Filament Fabrication Continuous Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composites.

Additive manufacturing of composites offers advantages over metals since composites are lightweight, fatigue and corrosion-resistant, and show high strength and stiffness. This work investigates the tensile and flexural performance of continuous carbon-fiber reinforced (CCF) composites with different guide angles and number of layers. The cost and printing time analyses were also conducted. Tensile specimens with a contour-only specimen and one CCF layer with a 0° guide angle exhibited nearly comparable strength values. Increasing the number of CCF layers enhances the tensile properties. For the identical cost and reinforcement amount, 0°/0° provides a higher tensile strength and elastic modulus compared with 15°/-15°. The same phenomenon was observed for 15°/0°/-15° and 0°/0°/0°. The samples with one and two reinforcement layers had similar stiffness and maximum load values for flexural tests. For the samples with four layers, there was a considerable improvement in stiffness but a minor decrease in the maximum load.

Ensembled surrogate-assisted material extrusion additive manufacturing for enhanced mechanical properties of PEEK

Purpose This study aims to improve the mechanical properties of an object produced by fused deposition modelling with high-grade polymer. Design/methodology/approach The study uses an ensembled surrogate-assisted evolutionary algorithm (SAEA) to optimize the process parameters for example, layer height, print speed, print direction and nozzle temperature for enhancing the mechanical properties of temperature-sensitive high-grade polymer poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) in fused deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printing while considering print time as one of the important parameter. These models are integrated with an evolutionary algorithm to efficiently explore parameter space. The optimized parameters from the SAEA approach are compared with those obtained using the Gray Relational Analysis (GRA) Taguchi method serving as a benchmark. Later, the study also highlights the significant role of print direction in optimizing the mechanical properties of FDM 3D printed PEEK. Findings With the use of ensemble learning-based SAEA, one can successfully maximize the ultimate stress and percentage elongation with minimum print time. SAEA-based solution has 28.86% higher ultimate stress, 66.95% lower percentage of elongation and 7.14% lower print time in comparison to the benchmark result (GRA Taguchi method). Also, the results from the experimental investigation indicate that the print direction has a greater role in deciding the optimum value of mechanical properties for FDM 3D printed high-grade thermoplastic PEEK polymer. Research limitations/implications This study is valid for the parameter ranges, which are defined to conduct the experimentation. Practical implications This study has been conducted on the basis of taking only a few important process parameters as per the literatures and available scope of the study; however, there are many other parameters, e.g. wall thickness, road width, print orientation, fill pattern, roller speed, retraction, etc. which can be included to make a more comprehensive investigation and accuracy of the results for practical implementation. Originality/value This study deploys a novel meta-model-based optimization approach for enhancing the mechanical properties of high-grade thermoplastic polymers, which is rarely available in the published literature in the research domain.

Assessment on the influence of FDM process parameters on the mechanical properties of PLA samples

Abstract The manufacturing of functional parts from the fused deposition modeling 3D printer is limited due to poor mechanical properties, low surface finish, and huge production time. During 3D printing of prototypes, the time consumption of printing and mechanical properties of the model is directly proportional. The fused deposition modeling process parameters significantly impact the quality of printed parts. The prime objective of this research is to optimize the process parameters of a 3D printing machine (wall thickness, infill percentage, infill pattern, and infill speed) using polylactic acid material to enhance the mechanical properties with less printing time of the 3D printing model. The ultimate tensile strength and elongation of the 3D printed samples are used to evaluate the mechanical properties of the various slicing process parameters as per the standards. From the results, it is evident that the mechanical properties of the 3D printed materials increased significantly. The magnitude of ultimate tensile strength is reported as 39.972 MPa with a printing time of 28 min. From close observation, it is evident that lower infill speeds with gyroid infill pattern produce the highest ultimate tensile strength of all combinations. Also, optimal results are derived at higher wall thickness and higher infill percentage. In addition to that, finite element analysis was carried out for different infill percentages of the specimen to validate the actual result.

Single-photon-assisted two-photon polymerization

Light-based additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the fabrication of complex three-dimensional objects offering a cost-effective and high-speed alternative to traditional machining. Single-photon polymerization is a key process in this advancement, providing rapid printing time, albeit with limited resolution in the range of tens of micrometers. Two-photon polymerization provides sub-micrometer resolution but is accompanied by a tradeoff of prolonged printing times. We propose combining single- and two-photon absorption to benefit from the dual capabilities, allowing for faster printing time while maintaining high resolution. In this study, we employ a continuous-wave blue light source to pre-sensitize a photocurable resin by single-photon absorption followed by a tightly focused femtosecond laser beam to provide the required energy reaching the polymerization threshold for solidifying the resin through two-photon absorption. We first investigate the impact of pre-sensitization by blue light illumination followed by irradiation with a focused femtosecond laser beam and find that the voxel growth dynamics are markedly altered. Specifically, pre-sensitization by blue light lowers the polymerization threshold power of the femtosecond laser beam and increases the speed of voxel growth. We then exploit this effect by building a custom two-photon 3D printer in which the blue light pre-sensitization is created in a light-sheet configuration. We report successfully printed 3D objects for which the average femtosecond laser power was reduced by 28.6 % and the exposure time was reduced by a factor of two compared with polymerization performed only with the femtosecond laser beam. Additionally, a 63 % improvement in axial voxel size is attained through blue light-sheet pre-sensitization. Our theoretical analysis based on a diffusion-free model suggests that the mechanism of the pre-sensitization is oxygen depletion followed by a single-photon background latent polymerization.

Design considerations for digital light processing bioprinters.

With the rapid development and popularization of additive manufacturing, different technologies, including, but not limited to, extrusion-, droplet-, and vat-photopolymerization-based fabrication techniques, have emerged that have allowed tremendous progress in three-dimensional (3D) printing in the past decades. Bioprinting, typically using living cells and/or biomaterials conformed by different printing modalities, has produced functional tissues. As a subclass of vat-photopolymerization bioprinting, digital light processing (DLP) uses digitally controlled photomasks to selectively solidify liquid photocurable bioinks to construct complex physical objects in a layer-by-layer manner. DLP bioprinting presents unique advantages, including short printing times, relatively low manufacturing costs, and decently high resolutions, allowing users to achieve significant progress in the bioprinting of tissue-like complex structures. Nevertheless, the need to accommodate different materials while bioprinting and improve the printing performance has driven the rapid progress in DLP bioprinters, which requires multiple pieces of knowledge ranging from optics, electronics, software, and materials beyond the biological aspects. This raises the need for a comprehensive review to recapitulate the most important considerations in the design and assembly of DLP bioprinters. This review begins with analyzing unique considerations and specific examples in the hardware, including the resin vat, optical system, and electronics. In the software, the workflow is analyzed, including the parameters to be considered for the control of the bioprinter and the voxelizing/slicing algorithm. In addition, we briefly discuss the material requirements for DLP bioprinting. Then, we provide a section with best practices and maintenance of a do-it-yourself DLP bioprinter. Finally, we highlight the future outlooks of the DLP technology and their critical role in directing the future of bioprinting. The state-of-the-art progress in DLP bioprinter in this review will provide a set of knowledge for innovative DLP bioprinter designs.

Planar and non-planar hybrid printing trajectory generation method

Abstract Aiming at the problem of step effect, a planar and non-planar hybrid printing trajectory generation method is studied. The region with the inclination of the surface and horizontal plane of the model is extracted for non-planar printing, which can improve the surface printing quality of the model while controlling the printing time. The experimental results show that the proposed algorithm has good adaptability and can meet the requirements of engineering applications.

Experimental Determination of Tensile Stress Concentration Factors of 3D-Printed PLA Polymers: Fillet Radius, Hole Diameter, and Infill Density

3D-printing technology is being used as a regular approach in prototyping and the production of machine components. However, despite their metallic counterparts, there are many issues including infill pattern, density, and stress concentration coefficient in 3D printing that are not well-defined. The infill density plays a significant role in the printing time and mechanical properties of the printed objects. On the other hand, like metallic materials, changing geometry, such as fillet radius and hole alters the strength of the printed elements. In this work, experimental works have been conducted to determine the effect of infill density on the tensile strength of 3D printed elements. Furthermore, various standard specimens for tensile testing have been prepared to investigate the effects of fillet radius and in-plane hole diameters on the tensile strength of PLA 3D-printed elements with different infill density. Using the experimental results, the tensile stress concentration coefficients as a function of fillet radius, hole diameters, and infill density have been determined. The results of the present work can be used as a guideline for analytical design and manufacturing 3D printing objects.

A response surface methodology investigation into the optimization of manufacturing time and quality for FFF 3D printed PLA parts

PurposeThis study aims to examine the impact of specific printing factors, such as layer height, line width and build orientation, on the overall quality of fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printed structures. The project also intends to use response surface methodology (RSM) to maximize ultimate tensile strength (UTS) while lowering surface roughness and printing time.Design/methodology/approachThis study used an FFF printer to fabricate samples of polylactic acid (PLA), which were then subjected to assessments of tensile strength and surface roughness. A tensile test was conducted under standardized conditions according to the ASTM D638 standard test method using the AG-50 kN Shimadzu Autograph. The Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-210, which utilizes a needle-tipped inductive method, was used to determine surface roughness. RSM was used for optimization.FindingsThis work provides useful insights into how the printing parameters affect FFF 3D printed structures, which may be used to optimize the printing process and improve PLA-based 3D printed products' qualities. The determined optimal values for building orientation, layer height and line width were 0°, 0.1 mm and 0.6 mm, respectively. The total desirability value of 0.80 implies desirable outcomes, and good agreement between experimental and projected response values supports the suggested models.Originality/valuePrevious RSM studies for 3D printing parameter optimization focused on mechanical properties or surface aspects, however, few examined multiple responses and their interactions. This study emphasizes the relevance of FFF parameters like line width, which are often overlooked but can dramatically impact printing quality. Mechanical properties, surface quality and printing time are integrated to comprehend optimization holistically.

Mesh Optimisation for General 3D Printed Objects with Cusp-Height Triangulation Approach

3D printing (3DP) is increasingly utilized to achieve quick turnaround on various geometric designs and prototypes, being the growing part of additive manufacturing technology (AMT). The 3DP technique effectively improves the production of complex models in terms of low-cost, time-consuming production, and with less material volume. The key to results optimisation with 3DP is the preparation of the geometry. The following techniques can effectively reduce the required time of the 3D printing process for complex and non-linear CAD files. The fused deposition modelling/fabrication (FDM/FFF) techniques become the first choice in many applications, including biomedical ones. Still, some obstacles exist in the geometry roughness and quality zones. This paper proposes an optimisation method for 3D printed shapes used in biomedical devices and instrumentation by minimising the support structure attached to the model using the FDM technique. In this research, we proposed a method for dynamic compensation against gravity-affected parts extended from the main object’s geometry using a forward planar learning (FPL) algorithm to minimise cusp height in 3D printed objects. After the slicing stage, the outcomes proved to be of good quality, optimised the object’s surfaces, and minimised the printing time by 32%–38%. The proposed method is promising in defining a better setting for slicing and toolpath for FDM 3D printing. However, this method was not tested on other 3DP methods (Stereolithography (SLA), Selective laser sintering (SLS), and Digital Light Processing (DLP)), as more verification efforts need to be done on these 3D printing processes.