Childcare Time Research Articles

Muggle, Juggle, Snuggle, and Struggle: profiles of parenting experiences of mothers and fathers in South Korea during the COVID-19 pandemic

ABSTRACT The current study expands the literature on parenting during the COVID-19 pandemic by considering how much time spent on childcare increased and how the time was perceived by mothers and fathers in South Korea. Using the perspective of family systems theory and taking a person-centered approach, this study examined how parental experiences differ according to parental gender and investigated subgroups of mothers and fathers in terms of parental experiences during the pandemic. This study also examined how those groups differ in terms of the factors of family subsystems, adaptive self-organization, and sociodemographic variables. With a sample of 372 mothers and 366 fathers in South Korea, this study employed latent profile analysis and identified four distinct subgroups of mothers and fathers: Muggle, Juggle, Snuggle, and Struggle. Some parents feel like muggles, managing short childcare times without much joy or challenge, whereas others juggle long hours with their children, finding both joy and difficulty. Some snuggle, enjoying their extended childcare time with delight, whereas others struggle, facing the hardships of prolonged childcare without much enjoyment. The overall profile patterns and the ratios of these profiles were similar for both mothers and fathers. Suggestions for future researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers are discussed.

Measuring gendered values of time for married couples by life stage based on an intertemporal household utility-maximization model

We investigate the value of time as a resource (VOTR) and the value of childcare time saving (VOCTS) for a married couple with children by life cycle stage. Extending the framework of DeSerpa (1971), we develop a novel intertemporal utility-maximization model that can represent trade-offs within an individual and within a couple between different activities in their life stages based on a household lifetime equilibrium, and we derive wives’ and husbands’ time values when their first child is of pre-school age and after their first child reaches school age. Applying the model to the 2004–2018 Japan Household Panel Survey, we analyze couples in two life stages to empirically find the value of time by gender. The results show that the wives’ average VOTR is greater than 4400 yen/hour with statistical significance when their first child is of pre-school age; the value, however, drastically drops to around 400 yen/hour with statistical insignificance after their first child reaches school age. Conversely, the magnitudes of the husbands’ VOTRs do not change much in different life stages. In the background mechanisms, the wives’ high and low VOTRs reflect their short and long work and commute hours, respectively, whereas the husbands reduce their work and commute hours only slightly over time. For the dual-income households that only spend the minimum required time on childcare, VOCTS is statistically insignificant when their first child is of pre-school age but is greater than 28,000 yen/hour after their first child reaches school age. Using the estimated time values for urban and transport policy simulations, we find that enabling work flexibility could help households increase welfare more compared to transportation improvement and childcare support services.

Effects of a monthly unconditional cash transfer starting at birth on family investments among US families with low income.

How does unconditional income for families in poverty affect parental investments for their young children? Mothers in four US metropolitan areas were randomized to receive a monthly unconditional cash transfer of either $333 per month (high) or $20 per month (low) for the first several years after childbirth. During the first 3 years, high-cash gift households spent more money on child-specific goods and more time on child-specific early learning activities than the low-cash gift group. Few changes were evident in other core household expenditures. Compared with low-cash gift families, high-cash gift families reported lower rates of public benefit receipt and fewer were residing in poverty, although mean income and wealth remain low for the majority of families by year 3. No statistically significant differences were evident in mothers' participation in paid work, children's time in childcare or mothers' subjective wellbeing.

Research note: Gender and educational differences in childcare time: Evidence from the Czech Republic

Objective: This study explores the gender and educational differences in the time spent on childcare in the Czech Republic. In particular, we ask how gender and educational gradients in parenting time intersect and whether they vary by the child’s age. We consider the time parents spend in basic, interactive and focused childcare care as a way to address the intensive parenting model. Background: Prior research has documented an increase in parental time investment in childcare associated with changes in gender roles and the spread of norms of intensive parenting. However, it remains unclear whether educational and gender differences in parenting time are converging because of these changes and how they vary by the child’s age. Method: Using time-use data from the Czech Household Study Panel Study—a nationally representative sample from the Czech Republic (2015)—we applied mixed regression models to analyse time spent on three types of childcare activities. Results: The results indicate that highly educated parents allocate more time to basic and focused care, reflecting a commitment to intensive child-centred parenting. In addition, higher-educated fathers of preschoolers engage more in interactive care. Although gender disparities persist among higher-educated parents, the gap narrows for parents with children older than three years. Conclusion: The findings underscore the importance of analysing parenting time across different activities and child ages to understand family dynamics and child opportunities.

What our children lost and gained at the time of school closure during the Covid-19 pandemic: a study on psychological distress, behavioural concerns and protective factors of resilience among preschool children in Kerala, India

BackgroundThe pandemic has put at risk the social and emotional development of children on account of the paucity of arenas for social interaction. This study from Kerala, India was conducted to assess the resilience factors, behavioural concerns, psychological distress symptoms among the children aged 3 to 5 years. We also tried to look into the lost opportunities that could have aided the social and emotional development of children like peer interaction, child care hours.MethodsThe cross-sectional study was conducted among the children aged 3 to 5 years. A total of 535 children attending the immunisation clinics were enrolled by consecutive sampling. Devereux Early Childhood Assessment P2 (DECA P2) questionnaire was used to assess the levels of resilient factors and behavioural concerns in the study population.ResultsWe observed a high proportion of children in the area of need category of protective factors under DECA P2. The proportion of children falling under area of concern was 64.5%, 49%, 68.4% for attachment/relationship, self-regulation, and initiative respectively. 24.9% study subjects have a behavioural concern score that puts them in the area of need category. The logistic regression model we created identified ‘Male Gender,’ ‘Mothers could spend only less time for child care’ and ‘electronic devices used as pacifier’ as significant predictors for belonging to Area of need Behavioural Concerns T score category.ConclusionA large proportion of children aged between 3 to 5 years with reported behavioural concerns and lack of protective factors for socioemotional development. This can be attributed partly to the ongoing pandemic and its associated restrictions. The increased child care hours invested by parents or grandparents could have sized down the full impact that the pandemic would have had on the socio emotional development of the child. Increased time spent using electronic devices coupled with dwindled opportunities for interaction with peers have been notable challenges.

Childcare Facility Closure and Exacerbated Gender Inequality in Parenting Time during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The unprecedented large-scale childcare facility closure during the COVID-19 pandemic led to a dramatic increase in the childcare burden at home, which is shouldered disproportionately by women more than men. Leveraging anonymized mobile tracking data and nationally representative time-use survey data from the USA, this study adopts a quasi-experimental approach to examine the impact of childcare facility closure on the gendered division of household childcare time. It further investigates whether this impact varies according to respondent education, family income, and employment status. Results show an expanding gender gap in parenting time on child education with young children during the pandemic. The gender gap expanded even more in places and months with more childcare facility closures, but this gendered effect is only evident among parents with lower education and family income. Our findings call for institutional support during similar public crises to mitigate the potentially negative impact on gender equality.

Efficacy of a Physical Activity e-Learning Course Delivered to Early Childhood Educators on Preschoolers' Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviors: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial.

This study examined the effectiveness of an early childhood educator (ECE)-focused physical activity e-Learning course on children's physical activity and sedentary time in childcare. A cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted in 12 childcare centers in London, Ontario, Canada. A total of 145 preschoolers and 42 ECEs participated in this study. ECEs in the intervention condition completed a 5-hour e-Learning course related to physical activity. Outcomes were preschoolers' minutes of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity, light-intensity physical activity, and sedentary time assessed using accelerometers. The intervention did not have a significant effect on moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (d < 0.01, P = .984), light-intensity physical activity (d = -0.17, P = .386), or sedentary time (d = 0.07, P = .717) from baseline to postintervention. There was also no significant intervention effect on moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (d = 0.27, P = .260), light-intensity physical activity (d = -0.08, P = .740), or sedentary time (d = -0.15, P = .520) from baseline to follow-up. Providing ECEs with online training in physical activity through an e-Learning course may not be sufficient to increase physical activity levels among young children in their care. It may be essential to deliver multicomponent interventions to increase preschoolers' engagement in physical activity in childcare.

Working from Home, Endogenous Fertility, and Human Capital Accumulation

This paper analyzes the effects of working from home on fertility rate and human capital accumulation using an overlapping-generations model, which is mainly based on Groezen, Leers and Mejidam (2003) and Cardak (2004). Although Groezen, Leers and Mejidam (2003) consider childcare cost and child allowances in a model of a small open economy, they ignore educational expenditures and do not analyze human capital accumulation. Although Cardak (2004) considers human capital accumulation and assumes it is determined by governmental or parental expenditures on education and by parent’s human capital endowments, he ignores childcare cost and child allowances, and assumes population size is constant in each period. This study considers human capital accumulation in a model introduced childcare time with endogenous fertility by following Murata (2022). We then consider the effects of working from home on fertility rate and human capital accumulation. This paper is motivated by enforced working from home during the coronavirus (Covid-19) pandemic. We find that if the government increases childcare subsidies, working from home promotes human capital accumulation and economic growth.

Childcare Support Policies, Endogenous Fertility, Human Capital Accumulation, and Dynamics of National Debt

This paper analyzes the interaction among childcare support policies, endogenous fertility, and human capital accumulation using an overlapping-generations model, which is mainly based on Groezen, Leers and Mejidam (2003) and Cardak (2004). Although Groezen, Leers and Mejidam (2003) consider endogenous fertility and child allowances financed by tax or foreign debt in a model of a small open economy, they ignore educational expenditures and do not analyze human capital accumulation and national debt. Although Cardak (2004) considers human capital accumulation and assumes it is determined by governmental or parental expenditures on education and by parent’s human capital endowments, he ignores child allowances and assumes population size is constant in each period. This study considers human capital accumulation in a model introduced childcare time with endogenous fertility and assumes that child allowances and childcare services are financed by income tax and national debt. We then consider two childcare support policies―raise child allowances or expand childcare services―and compare the effects of both policies on endogenous fertility and human capital accumulation. Moreover, we analyze dynamics of national debt.

State-Level Safety Net Spending and Educational Gaps in Maternal Time with Children.

We examine how state spending on children is associated with the size of socioeconomic gaps in maternal childcare time. Persistent socioeconomic divides in the amount and nature of parental time with children have prompted consideration of the factors that mitigate inequalities within the family. At both the national and local levels, the welfare state plays an important role in structuring opportunities for children. Thus it is important to understand the institutional factors that shape parental behavior. Yet, little research examines how the social safety net is associated with family processes. Using rich data on maternal time with children from the American Time Use Surveys (2003-2016), combined with longitudinal data on public spending in states on major programs affecting children and families, we examine how state spending on children is associated with the size of socioeconomic gaps in maternal childcare time. We found that higher levels of state spending were associated with significant increases in childcare time among low-educated mothers at both the extensive and intensive margin, increasing the likelihood of spending any minutes on primary childcare in a typical day, as well as increasing the number of minutes spent on childcare. In contrast, we observed no variation in the behavior of highly-educated mothers as state spending changes. State-level investments could meaningfully narrow socioeconomic gaps in maternal time with children.

Educational difference in parents’ childcare time: evidence from CTUS

ABSTRACT This study utilises data from China's second (2018) Time Use Survey (CTUS) to quantitatively investigate the impact of educational level on the amount of time parents commit to childcare. It finds that as educational attainment increases and attitudes towards parenting change, parents focus on childcare through “primary activities”. Mothers engaged in childcare as a “secondary activity” only account for 6.2 per cent of the sample, and fathers for an even lower 4.5 per cent. Education positively affects the time parents devote to childcare. The father's involvement in childcare is significantly influenced by the mother's level of education. Employment status significantly influences both parents and spousal childcare time. Women bear approximately three times as much time to childcare as fathers. Furthermore, the shift away from traditional gender-biased attitudes has not significantly influenced the time that parents commit to childcare. Older generations living in the same household do not significantly reduce parents' childcare time.

Heterogeneity in parental time with children: trends by gender and education between 1961 and 2012 across 20 countries

Abstract This article investigates the level and dynamics of heterogeneity in parental childcare time using data from the Multinational Time Use Study across 20 countries over five decades. Applying the Gini coefficient as the main summary measure of the dispersion in the distribution at the country level, we show that heterogeneity in paternal time has been higher than that in maternal time throughout the last half-century. The gap has narrowed over the last decade, mainly due to a reduction in paternal time heterogeneity. This pattern is observed not only across countries over time but also within those countries for which we have repeated observations. We also show relevant socio-economic variations. Heterogeneity among low-educated mothers started to be systematically above that of high-educated mothers in the 1970s. In the group of fathers, heterogeneity has always been higher for the low-educated and it has been on the rise in the last decade. Results of a counterfactual analysis suggest that the main driver of the trends in paternal timne heterogeneity is the reduction in the share of fathers who do not provide any childcare, especially among the low-educated.

Beyond mothers' time in childcare: Worlds of care and connection in the early life course.

Family scholars examining time spent on children's care focus heavily on mothers' allocations to a specific sphere of active caregiving activities. But children's needs for care and supervision involve connection to others; and many others beyond mothers can and do provide care, especially as children grow. Using a "linked lives" approach that centers relationality, we show how time diaries can illuminate children's time spent in "socially connected" care. Using recent (2014-2019) time diary data from the American and the United Kingdom Time Use Surveys, we examine mothers', children's, and teenagers' days to assess two forms of connected care time. First, results show that in addition to childcare time as traditionally measured by time use studies, mothers spend considerable further time providing connected care through social and community time in which children are included, religious activities with their children present, and mealtime with children. Second, looking from the child's perspective also underscores time in the larger "village" of carers within which children and youth are embedded. Fully two-thirds of 8-14-year-olds' and three-quarters of 15-17-year-olds' waking time is not with mothers-it is spent alone or in social connection to fathers, extended family, teachers, neighbors, and friends. A "linked lives" approach shifts attention to assessing care time in diverse activities with others and to measuring mothers' and children's time in social connections within the larger world. This analytic frame also moves away from maternal determinism to highlight the contours of children's care and social time occurring within the community at large, as well as the roles and responsibilities of those outside of the mother-child dyad across the child's early life course.

Remembered childhood mealtime experiences influence on early childcare and education staff

Parent feeding styles, behaviors, beliefs, and practices are associated with developing children's eating behaviors. However, many children spend considerable time in childcare; thus, are exposed to child-feeding practices of other adults, e.g., early care and education (ECE) staff. Limited research exists on how and whether current classroom feeding practices of ECE staff associate with their own childhood experiences. The About Feeding Children survey, conducted in 2005, examined self-reported feeding practices and beliefs and personal characteristics of ECE staff in Western United States. An exploratory factor analysis of questions related to childhood experiences (N = 1189), revealed two Mealtime Factors: Remembered Adult Control and Remembered Child Autonomy Support. Structural equation modeling was conducted to examine the hypothesis that these remembered experiences would be associated with current feeding practices (Structural Mealtime Strategies, Verbal Mealtime Strategies, and Beliefs about Mealtimes). For each outcome, models had good to moderate fit. Across models, Remembered Autonomy Support was associated with less control, bribing, autonomy undermining, and concern-based control beliefs and greater support at meals and autonomy promoting beliefs in teachers' classroom feeding practices. More research is called for to consider whether reflection on remembered childhood experiences might be beneficial to consider during ECE staff training related to feeding young children.

Continuity and changes in grandchild care and the risk of depression for Chinese grandparents: new evidence from CHARLS.

Although studies have researched the mental effects of intergenerational care, little is known about the impact of transformations in caregiving intensity on depression. This study explores grand-parents' depressive symptom outcomes in terms of changes over time in grandparental childcare, with considerations for subgroup differences. Using data from the 2015-2018 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study on grandparents aged 45 and older, we adopted generalized estimating equations to estimate the effects of seven category changes [(1) continued to provide high-intensity or (2) low-intensity care at both waves; (3) never provided care; (4) started caregiving; (5) ended caregiving; (6) provided less intensive care; and (7) provided more intensive care] over time in grandparental childcare on depressive symptoms among 17,701 grandparents with at least one grandchild, as well as how the impact varies by gender and urban/rural areas. Grandparents who decreased the intensity of care, stopped childcare, or offered continuous low-intensity care were associated with a lower level of depression compared with those providing no childcare. In addition, the benefit of continuous caregiving on mental health was especially noticeable in urban grandmothers. Providing continuous low-intensity, decreased-intensity grandparenting and the cessation of caregiving were associated with a decreased level of depression for Chinese grandparents; however, there were complex interactions at play. Policies aimed at supporting grandparenting should consider caregiving intensity transitions relevant to gender and urban/rural residence.

Overeducation and childcare time

PurposeResearch shows that parental employment and education status affect the amount of parental childcare time, which is a fundamental determinant of children's outcomes. In this paper, the authors study whether being overeducated – working in a job that requires less education than the level of education acquired – is related to the time parents devote to their children.Design/methodology/approachThe authors set two main hypotheses. First, overeducation might lead to more childcare time if being overeducated is the result of the individual prioritizing family over career. Second, overeducation might lead to less childcare time if overeducation is the result of lower ability. The authors estimate time use equations using the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) from 2004 to 2019.FindingsThe authors find that overeducated parents devote less time to childcare than matched parents, especially in the weekend sample. The authors’ results suggest that overeducation is not a deliberate choice prioritizing family over career.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study on the implications of being overeducated on childcare.

Educational differences in parental time devoted to childcare in China

The intergenerational transmission of education in China has drawn extensive public and academic attention. This paper explores the differences in the amount of time Chinese parents spend on childcare stratified by education level and investigates the factors driving these differences. The analysis shows that more educated parents devote more time to childcare than less-educated parents. The educational differences in parental childcare time are particularly pronounced among working parents, parents with school-age children, and parents in the provinces where educational institutions are relatively scarce. Much of the extra childcare time is directed to educational care and travel with children. Compared to households in which the mother has less than a junior high school education, households with university-educated mothers spend 74 min more per day on childcare, with 58% of the extra time devoted to children's learning and education.

Multigenerational coresidence and parental time in developmental childcare in China

Multigenerational coresidence and parental time in developmental childcare in China

Experiences of nurses returning to work after the second/third childbirth and organizational support in Southeastern China: A qualitative exploration

Background: Since China encounters challenges of the aging population, especially a decrease in the working-age population, the Chinese government officially ended the one-child policy and has implemented the second/third child policies. This study aimed to explore nurses’ experiences, the supports they received from hospitals, and the supports they expected when returning to work after the second/third childbirth.Methods: Asynchronous focus groups and one-on-one in-person interviews were held with nurses from three hospitals in Wenzhou city who had returned to work within three months following their second/third childbirth. Data collection and analysis were conducted using Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs as a guiding framework.Results: Twenty-three nurses were included in this study. Themes emerged around five needs, including physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. Regarding these needs, nurses expressed receiving some support, including support from managers and colleagues and flexible scheduling assignments. However, there was also a lack of other supports, including dedicated time and space for breastfeeding, parental leave, nearby and affordable childcare, unit assignment and working schedules considering individual circumstances, mental health support, and opportunities for professional development.Conclusions: Our findings highlight the necessity to dedicate resources to support the diverse needs of returning nurse mothers such that they can balance family life and work. While longer-duration studies with larger sample sizes in other regions of China are needed, our findings also suggest future studies on exploring third childbirth experiences, evaluating supportive interventions, and creating a specific theoretical model on the comprehensive needs of nurses returning to work after childbirth.

How Do Wives and Husbands in Dual-Earner Couples in Korea Coordinate Work Hours and Childcare?

This study examined how dual-earner couples in Korea coordinate their work time to cope with childcare responsibilities and whether they employ tag-team parenting. Using the 2019 Korean Time Use Survey data, we assessed time spent in childcare and paid work among dual-earner couples with young children. OLS regression analysis was conducted separately for mothers’ and fathers’ childcare time, focusing on time spent on paid work and differences in work schedules. Mothers tend to leave for work later and head home earlier compared to fathers, presumably to take care of children. Couples worked longer separately than concurrently, and paid work time was strongly associated with one’s own and spousal time spent on childcare, supporting the desynchronization of work hours at the couple-level. Although the mother’s major responsibilities for childcare are still prevalent in Korea, couples tend to desynchronize working time with spouses so that one parent can be present with the children.