Time-domain Optical Coherence Tomography Research Articles

Conquering surfactant-induced partial wetting of commercial membrane in membrane distillation through in-situ water flushing

Surfactant-induced wetting impedes the practical implementation of membrane distillation (MD). Addressing this issue demands the development of an effective membrane cleaning strategy that can eliminate surfactants adhering to the membrane surface and restore the membrane hydrophobicity. However, current cleaning methods, such as direct drying and pressurized air backwashing, encounter challenges in thoroughly removing surfactants trapped within the pores while preserving the structural integrity of the membrane. This work presents a refined approach to conquer surfactant-induced wetting in MD by water flushing. Utilizing ultrasonic time domain reflectometry and optical coherence tomography techniques, we identified a critical cleaning depth and showed that the hydrophobicity of a partially wetted membrane can be fully recovered by water flushing when the wetting depth is below the critical threshold. Theoretical models evidenced that in instances of low water temperature and low flow rate conditions, relatively high critical cleaning depths can be realized, thereby expanding the operational scope for achieving complete hydrophobicity recovery. Our results demonstrated the applicability of water flushing to commercial membrane modules without necessitating any modification, emphasizing its substantial potential for advancing MD applications.

Mid-infrared optical coherence tomography with a stabilized OP-GaP optical parametric oscillator.

We demonstrate mid-infrared time-domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) with an orientation-patterned GaP optical parametric oscillator. Instantaneous broadband mid-infrared spectra provide reduced scattering for OCT applications including cultural heritage, quality assurance, and security. B-scan calibrations performed across the wavelength tuning range show depth resolutions of 67 µm at 5.1 µm and 88 µm at 10.5 µm. Volumetric imaging inside a plastic bank card is demonstrated at 5.1 µm, with a 1 Hz A-scan rate that indicates the potential of stable broadband OPO sources to contribute to mid-infrared OCT.

Time-domain full-field optical coherence tomography with a digital defocus correction.

Time-domain full-field optical coherence tomography (TD-FF-OCT) is an interferometric technique capable of acquiring high-resolution images deep within the biomedical tissue, utilizing a spatially and temporally incoherent light source. However, optical aberrations, such as sample defocus, can degrade the image quality, thereby limiting the achievable imaging depth. Here we demonstrate that the sample defocus within a highly scattering medium can be digitally corrected over a wide defocus range if the optical path lengths in the sample and reference arms are matched. We showcase the application of digital defocus correction on both reflective and scattering samples, effectively compensating digitally for up to 1 mm of defocus.

Direct Numerical Modeling as a Tool for Optical Coherence Tomography Development: SNR (Sensitivity) and Lateral Resolution Test Target Interpretation

Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is a growing family of biophotonic imaging techniques, but in the literature there is a lack of easy-to-use tools to universally directly evaluate a device’s theoretical performance for a given metric. Modern computing tools mean that direct numerical modeling can, from first principles, simulate the performance metrics of a specific device directly without relying on analytical approximations and/or complexities. Here, we present two different direct numerical models, along with the example MATLAB code for the reader to adapt to their own systems. The first model is of photo-electron shot noise at the detector, the primary noise source for OCT. We use this firstly to evaluate the amount of additional noise present (1.5 dB) for an experimental setup. Secondly, we demonstrate how to use it to precisely quantify the expected shot noise SNR limit difference between time-domain and Fourier-domain OCT systems in a given hypothetical experiment. The second model is used to demonstrate how USAF 1951 test chart images should be interpreted for a given lateral PSF shape. Direct numerical modeling is an easy and powerful basic tool for researchers and developers, the wider use of which may improve the rigor of the OCT literature.

Characterization of human skin under tension using terahertz time domain spectroscopy.

This paper introduces a spectral analysis method for monitoring the human skin in vivo based on a combination of terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) and optical coherence tomography (OCT). The method can quantitatively measure the refractive index, thickness and transmission coefficient of epidermis, and the refractive index of dermis in natural, as well as the tension condition of the skin. An optically reflective model for the multilayer structure of the skin is first established. The initial thickness of the epidermis is then measured by OCT as a known quantity for the established model. By fitting the established model to the experimentally obtained THz-TDS signals, the above parameters of the skin can be calibrated. Furthermore, the dependence of these skin parameters on the tension status are investigated. This study provides a means for terahertz technology to measure the skin in vivo.

Influence of static and dynamic ocular aberrations on full-field optical coherence tomography for in vivo high-resolution retinal imaging.

Under spatially incoherent illumination, time-domain full-field optical coherence tomography (FFOCT) offers the possibility to achieve in vivo retinal imaging at cellular resolution over a wide field of view. Such performance is possible, albeit there is the presence of ocular aberrations even without the use of classical adaptive optics. While the effect of aberrations in FFOCT has been debated these past years, mostly on low-order and static aberrations, we present, for the first time to our knowledge, a method enabling a quantitative study of the effect of statistically representative static and dynamic ocular aberrations on FFOCT image metrics, such as SNR, resolution, and image similarity. While we show that ocular aberrations can decrease FFOCT SNR and resolution by up to 14 dB and fivefold, we take advantage of such quantification to discuss different possible compromises between performance gain and adaptive optics complexity and speed, to optimize both sensor-based and sensorless FFOCT high-resolution retinal imaging.

Polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography for birefringence measurement of calcite nonlinear uniaxial crystal

We report on the new application, to the best of our knowledge, of a time-domain optical coherence tomography (TD-OCT) device used to measure the ordinary n o and extraordinary n e indices of calcite birefringence crystal at room temperature. A 1.25±0.05mm thick slab of calcite crystal is cut, polished, and used as a sample in the OCT arm. While the calcite slab is axially scanned, the raw carrier ordinary signals that came from its front and rear facets are received and denoised with a set of digital filters. The extraordinary signals are generated by the change of beam polarization using a 90°-rotating polarizer plate. It is found that the wavelet transform is capable of reaching the highest signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of about 24.50 and 23.91 for denoising the ordinary and extraordinary signals, respectively. Quantitative measurement of n o and n e is carried out by extracting a desired envelope from the denoised signals using standard methods. Average values of 1.660 and 1.444 are obtained for n o and n e , respectively, using the wavelet-denoised signals. The weights of the results are finally searched with ones obtained from two sets of dispersion equations. We found a very good agreement between the wavelet-denoised OCT- and dispersion equation-based values with a very low relative differences of 0.04% and 2.8% for n o and n e , respectively, when the Ghosh equation is used and averaged ones of 1.3% and 4.2% for n o and n e , respectively, when the Zhao et al. equation is applied.

Imaging of human corneoscleral junction (Limbus) vasculature with 100 KHz A-scan rate swept-source optical coherence tomography/angiography (OCT/A) system

The study demonstrates in-vivo three-dimensional depth-resolved Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography (OCTA) and Doppler OCT imaging performed on the anterior segment of the human eye. A high-speed swept-source OCT system was developed utilizing a swept-source laser having a 100 kHz A-scan sweep rate and centre wavelength at 1060 nm. The proposed system has an axial resolution of 4.5 µm and a transverse imaging resolution of 14 µm. The Doppler OCT provides information regarding the direction of blood flow in corneoscleral junction vessels, which employs the Joint Spectral and Time domain OCT (STdOCT) method. Parameters influencing the imaging of various vessels, like scanning density, A-scan rate, B-scan averaging, and number of BM scanning repeats, were also studied. Slit lamp images and OCT angiography en-face projections produced from PVOCTA (Phase-variance OCTA) and STdOCTA from the same regular patients were compared in order to demonstrate the additional potential of the system. The vascular systems at the Limbus consisting of circulatory, lymphatic, and aqueous outflow systems were imaged and presented. The output clinical parameters of the system will contribute to understanding the blood circulation with directionality at the limbus location, which can be further utilized to identify glaucoma. In the author's opinion, this article represents the first attempt to provide Doppler OCTA data for the anterior chamber of the human eye.

Nonlinear error analysis of fast optical delay lines.

Optical delay lines have wide applications in terahertz time-domain spectroscopy and optical coherence tomography. In this study, a fast-rotating optical delay line (FRODL) with 24 turntable reflection surfaces was designed. By analyzing the working principle of the FRODL, a mathematical model was established for the nonlinear parameter error of the FRODL delay time. By constructing the polarization Michelson interference system and testing the FRODL structure, the error of actual assembly parameters of the FRODL was approximately 0.015 mm, the actual delay time of the FRODL was greater than 43.5 ps, and the linearity was 99.785%.

Optical tomography in a single camera frame using fringe-encoded deep-learning full-field OCT.

Optical coherence tomography is a valuable tool for in vivo examination thanks to its superior combination of axial resolution, field-of-view and working distance. OCT images are reconstructed from several phases that are obtained by modulation/multiplexing of light wavelength or optical path. This paper shows that only one phase (and one camera frame) is sufficient for en face tomography. The idea is to encode a high-frequency fringe patterns into the selected layer of the sample using low-coherence interferometry. These patterns can then be efficiently extracted with a high-pass filter enhanced via deep learning networks to create the tomographic full-field OCT view. This brings 10-fold improvement in imaging speed, considerably reducing the phase errors and incoherent light artifacts related to in vivo movements. Moreover, this work opens a path for low-cost tomography with slow consumer cameras. Optically, the device resembles the conventional time-domain full-field OCT without incurring additional costs or a field-of-view/resolution reduction. The approach is validated by imaging in vivo cornea in human subjects. Open-source and easy-to-follow codes for data generation/training/inference with U-Net/Pix2Pix networks are provided to be used in a variety of image-to-image translation tasks.

Delayed Spontaneous Closure of a Full Thickness Myopic Macular Hole with Good Visual Recovery

Purpose: To present the longitudinal progression of a myopic macular hole with eventual closure and excellent visual recovery over a decade after initial full-thickness hole formation. Methods: The patient was monitored using time-domain and spectral-domain optical coherence tomography images over 16 years. Results: A 68-year-old man with high myopia was referred for surgical evaluation of a full-thickness macular hole and retinal detachment of his left eye, which were repaired. At initial presentation, the fellow eye demonstrated a lamellar hole, which eventually also progressed to become a full-thickness macular hole. The patient subsequently declined surgery and was observed semiannually over the course of 16 years. At 10 years following initial injury, the full-thickness macular hole closed spontaneously. The visual recovery was excellent with an acuity of 20/25. Conclusion: Although surgical intervention remains the mainstay of treatment for macular holes, patients who are not surgical candidates may still have good visual and anatomic outcomes even long after initial hole formation. Lamellar hole epiretinal proliferation material is frequently seen in myopic full-thickness macular holes and may be associated with eventual delayed hole closure due to their slow progression.

Use of Optical Coherence Tomography in Dentistry.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an optics-based imaging technique, which may be called an "optical biopsy." It can be used to acquire structural information about a tissue at a resolution comparable to histopathology. OCT is based on the principle of low-coherence interferometry where near-infrared (NIR) light is shown on a tissue sample and then cross-sectional images are obtained based on backscattered light and echo time delay. Two main types of OCT are characterized as time-domain OCT (TD-OCT) and Fourier-domain OCT (FD-OCT). The applications of OCT in dentistry can be broadly divided into two groups, i.e., assessment of pathologies and assessment of surfaces and interfaces. Lately, OCT has made its transition from experimental laboratories to mainstream clinical applications. Starting from the short-term training courses, clinicians working in specialities like oral pathology, oral medicine, and oral implantology may find it a useful tool for their practices. It is now clear that OCT will be considered a gold standard diagnostic tool for the detection and characterization of several conditions and lesions of the orofacial region. However, the next challenge will be to incorporate it into the undergraduate and postgraduate curriculum and train dental healthcare staff in the use of these devices.

In vivo burn scar assessment with speckle decorrelation and joint spectral and time domain optical coherence tomography.

Post-burn scars and scar contractures present significant challenges in burn injury management, necessitating accurate evaluation of the wound healing process to prevent or minimize complications. Non-invasive and accurate assessment of burn scar vascularity can offer valuable insights for evaluations of wound healing. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography (OCTA) are promising imaging techniques that may enhance patient-centered care and satisfaction by providing detailed analyses of the healing process. Our study investigates the capabilities of OCT and OCTA for acquiring information on blood vessels in burn scars and evaluates the feasibility of utilizing this information to assess burn scars. Healthy skin and neighboring scar data from nine burn patients were obtained using OCT and processed with speckle decorrelation, Doppler OCT, and an enhanced technique based on joint spectral and time domain OCT. These methods facilitated the assessment of vascular structure and blood flow velocity in both healthy skin and scar tissues. Analyzing these parameters allowed for objective comparisons between normal skin and burn scars. Our study found that blood vessel distribution in burn scars significantly differs from that in healthy skin. Burn scars exhibit increased vascularization, featuring less uniformity and lacking the intricate branching network found in healthy tissue. Specifically, the density of the vessels in burn scars is 67% higher than in healthy tissue, while axial flow velocity in burn scar vessels is 25% faster than in healthy tissue. Our research demonstrates the feasibility of OCT and OCTA as burn scar assessment tools. By implementing these technologies, we can distinguish between scar and healthy tissue based on its vascular structure, providing evidence of their practicality in evaluating burn scar severity and progression.

Comparative analysis of full-field OCT and optical transmission tomography.

This work compares two tomographic imaging technologies, time-domain full-field optical coherence tomography (FFOCT) working in reflection and optical transmission tomography (OTT), using a new optical setup that combines both. We show that, due to forward-scattering properties, the axial sectioning and contrast in OTT can be optimized by tuning illumination. The influence of sample scattering and thickness are discussed. We illustrate the comparison of the two methods in static (morphology) and dynamic (metabolic contrast) regimes using cell cultures, tissues and entire organisms emphasizing the advantages of both approaches.

Time-domain full-field optical coherence tomography with digital confocal line scanning.

Full-field optical coherence tomography (FF-OCT) is a camera-based interferometric microscopy technique that can image deep in tissue with high spatial resolution. However, the absence of confocal gating leads to suboptimal imaging depth. Here, we implement digital confocal line scanning in time-domain FF-OCT by exploiting the row-by-row detection feature of a rolling-shutter camera. A digital micromirror device (DMD) is used in conjunction with the camera to produce synchronized line illumination. An improvement in the SNR by an order of magnitude is demonstrated on a sample of a US Air Force (USAF) target mounted behind a scattering layer.

Time domain ptychographic full field optical coherence tomography

Full field optical coherence tomography (FF-OCT) has the advantage of ultrahigh lateral resolution (∼1 µm) resulting from a relatively high numerical aperture (NA) micro objective. However, usually the field of view of micro objective is limited. Furthermore, in vivo imaging, significant motion artifacts limit the performance of traditional FF-OCT where the quality of the restored image is generally degraded due to the influence of motion artifacts. In this paper, we propose a method of edge-preserving ptychography based on dual-balanced time domain FF-OCT, which we can call it time-domain ptychography full field optical coherence tomography (TD-POCT). The method combines the advantages of both ptychography and dual-balanced FF-OCT, which can overcome the limitation of the field for view of micro objective and suppresses motion blur. Moreover, this method can recover not only the amplitude of each layer, but also the phase information. So in addition to tomography, the system can also be used for surface 3D object reconstruction. Numerical simulation verifies that both the horizontal and vertical resolution can reach a few microns.

Modifying the coherence of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers using chaotic cavities

Vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) have been widely adopted in a variety of applications in recent years, with even more applications currently under research and development as a result of the emergence of visible-light VCSELs. Most of these applications make use of the ease of fabrication of large two-dimensional arrays of lasers, a feature unique to VCSELs that makes them scalable and versatile. However, applications that rely on the uniformity of the emitted beam in the transverse plane, such as illumination, projection, holography, and displays, suffer from the coherence artifacts (speckles) that reduce the quality of the formed images when coherent lasers are used. In this work, we show that, by using a chaotic-cavity D-shaped mesa, the coherence of broad-area VCSELs can be substantially reduced (the number of mutually incoherent modes is almost doubled, and the spectral full width at half-maximum is increased from ∼ 1.1 n m to ∼ 4.5 n m ), and the maximum achievable optical power is increased by up to 60%. The simplicity of implementing the reported design, which requires no additional fabrication steps, makes it a promising solution for applications that would benefit from the lower speckle density of the emitted light as well as those that rely on lower temporal coherence, such as time-domain optical coherence tomography and fiber-optic gyroscopes.

Time-domain full-field optical coherence tomography (TD-FF-OCT) in ophthalmic imaging.

Ocular imaging plays an irreplaceable role in the evaluation of eye diseases. Developing cellular-resolution ophthalmic imaging technique for more accurate and effective diagnosis and pathogenesis analysis of ocular diseases is a hot topic in the cross-cutting areas of ophthalmology and imaging. Currently, ocular imaging with traditional optical coherence tomography (OCT) is limited in lateral resolution and thus can hardly resolve cellular structures. Conventional OCT technology obtains ultra-high resolution at the expense of a certain imaging range and cannot achieve full field of view imaging. In the early years, Time-domain full-field OCT (TD-FF-OCT) has been mainly used for ex vivo ophthalmic tissue studies, limited by the low speed and low full-well capacity of existing two-dimensional (2D) cameras. The recent improvements in system design opened new imaging possibilities for in vivo applications thanks to its distinctive optical properties of TD-FF-OCT such as a spatial resolution almost insensitive to aberrations, and the possibility to control the curvature of the optical slice. This review also attempts to look at the future directions of TD-FF-OCT evolution, for example, the potential transfer of the functional-imaging dynamic TD-FF-OCT from the ex vivo into in vivo use and its expected benefit in basic and clinical ophthalmic research. Through non-invasive, wide-field, and cellular-resolution imaging, TD-FF-OCT has great potential to be the next-generation imaging modality to improve our understanding of human eye physiology and pathology.

Determination of scattering coefficient and scattering anisotropy factor of tissue-mimicking phantoms using line-field confocal optical coherence tomography (LC-OCT)

Line-field Confocal Optical Coherence Tomography (LC-OCT) is an imaging modality based on a combination of time-domain optical coherence tomography and reflectance confocal microscopy. LC-OCT provides three-dimensional images of semi-transparent samples with a spatial resolution of ∼1 μm. The technique is primarily applied to in vivo skin imaging. The image contrast in LC-OCT arises from the backscattering of incident light by the sample microstructures, which is determined by the optical scattering properties of the sample, characterized by the scattering coefficient μs and the scattering anisotropy factor g. In biological tissues, the scattering properties are determined by the organization, structure and refractive indexes of the sample. The measurement of these properties using LC-OCT would therefore allow a quantitative characterization of tissues in vivo. We present a method for extracting the two scattering properties μs and g of tissue-mimicking phantoms from 3D LC-OCT images. The method provides the mean values of μs and g over a lateral field of view of 1.2 mm × 0.5 mm (x × y). It can be applied to monolayered and bilayered samples, where it allows extraction of μs and g of each layer. Our approach is based on a calibration using a phantom with known optical scattering properties and on the application of a theoretical model to the intensity depth profiles acquired by LC-OCT. It was experimentally tested against integrating spheres and collimated transmission measurements for a set of monolayered and bilayered scattering phantoms.

Robust Identification and Segmentation of the Outer Skin Layers in Volumetric Fingerprint Data.

Despite the long history of fingerprint biometrics and its use to authenticate individuals, there are still some unsolved challenges with fingerprint acquisition and presentation attack detection (PAD). Currently available commercial fingerprint capture devices struggle with non-ideal skin conditions, including soft skin in infants. They are also susceptible to presentation attacks, which limits their applicability in unsupervised scenarios such as border control. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) could be a promising solution to these problems. In this work, we propose a digital signal processing chain for segmenting two complementary fingerprints from the same OCT fingertip scan: One fingerprint is captured as usual from the epidermis ("outer fingerprint"), whereas the other is taken from inside the skin, at the junction between the epidermis and the underlying dermis ("inner fingerprint"). The resulting 3D fingerprints are then converted to a conventional 2D grayscale representation from which minutiae points can be extracted using existing methods. Our approach is device-independent and has been proven to work with two different time domain OCT scanners. Using efficient GPGPU computing, it took less than a second to process an entire gigabyte of OCT data. To validate the results, we captured OCT fingerprints of 130 individual fingers and compared them with conventional 2D fingerprints of the same fingers. We found that both the outer and inner OCT fingerprints were backward compatible with conventional 2D fingerprints, with the inner fingerprint generally being less damaged and, therefore, more reliable.