Time-dependent Mechanical Properties Research Articles

Early age time-dependent mechanical properties of 3D-printed concrete with coarse aggregates

Incorporating coarse aggregate into 3D-printed concrete is essential for promoting its practical application, yet the impact on the early age time-dependent mechanical properties, crucial for the multilayer structure stability and quality, is underexplored. In this study, 3D-printed concrete with coarse aggregate (3DPCA) with varying mortar-to-coarse aggregate ratios (M/A) and coarse aggregate gradations were prepared, of which uniaxial unconfined compression and direct shear performance were experimentally investigated. The fundamental formulations between the early age mechanical parameters and the resting time of 3DPCA were characterized and then utilized in a digital model simulating actual printing. Results indicated that the 3DPCA early age mechanical properties, including compressive strength, Young's modulus, cohesion, and friction angle, increased with longer resting time and decreasing M/A, and higher proportions of aggregates above 9.5 mm. High coarse aggregate content caused three distinct compressive strength-displacement curve stages and complicated strength eigenvalue extraction. Coarse aggregate gradation affected shear properties more than content, with larger aggregates improving cohesion and friction angles. The failure mode prediction model based on ABAQUS could accurately predict the maximum collapse layer of 3DPCA that occurred in overall unstable collapse and over-expansion failure but was incapable of localized deformation.

Temperature dependent effect of nano-scale phase change materials on fresh and hardened cement based mortar

One of the smart and innovative materials used to produce environmentally friendly energy-saving concrete is temperature dependent phase change (PCM) materials. In this study, the fresh and hardened concrete properties of the mortars including PCM in different ratios (0%, 2.5%, 5%) were investigated experimentally. Rheological properties such as slump-flow, specific viscosity, and yield stress tests were determined at different temperatures (from 20 to 50 °C). Time-dependent physical, mechanical, and thermal properties such as ultrasound pulse velocity (UPV), electrical resistivity, dynamic modulus of elasticity, compressive and flexural strength, thermogravimetric (TGA), and thermal conductivity tests were carried out. According to the experimental findings, the workability and hardened properties of mortars were decreased by using PCM. However, the rheological properties of fresh mortar change depending on temperature due to PCM absorbing the heat. Therefore, the fresh properties of mortar with PCM can be controlled by temperature. It was also found that the phase change of mortars with PCM can be obtained by measuring the electrical or UPV tests at different temperatures.

Fluidized solidified soil using construction slurry improved by fly ash and slag: Preparation, mechanical property, and microstructure

Abstract Fluidized solidified soil (FSS) is a cement-based engineering matergood working performance and mechanical properties. Based on fixed cement and desulphurisation gypsum (DG), fly ash (FA) and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) were added as admixtures to the construction slurry to prepare three types of FSS: namely cement-GGBS-DG FSS (CGD-FSS), cement-FA-GGBS-DG FSS (CFGD-FSS), and cement-FA-DG FSS (CFD-FSS). Considering 7 d, 14 d, and 28 d three curing times, compressive, flexural, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-Ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were conducted to explore the time-dependent mechanical properties and microscopic characterisation of FSS. The mechanical test showed that CFGD-FSS doped with FA and GGBS had better fluidity, compressive strength, and flexural strength than CGD-FSS doped with FA alone and CFD-FSS doped with GGBS. The CFGD-FSS specimen with a cement:FA:GGBS:DG ratio of 30: 10: 40: 20 in the curing agent had the best mechanical properties, i.e., the CFGD01 specimens. It has fluidity of 189 mm, compressive strength of 671 kPa, and flexural strength of 221 kPa with a 28d curing time, which can meet the working requirements of FSS for filling narrow engineering spaces. And compared with other specimens, it has the shortest setting time, which can effectively shorten the construction period. Microscopic analysis showed that a large number of hydration products, such as calcium silicate hydrate, calcium aluminate hydrate, and ettringite (Aft), were well-formed in the FSS, resulting in good mechanical properties, especially for the CFGD-01 specimens. Finally, two empirical models were established to describe the compressive strength–porosity and flexural strength–porosity relationships. Moreover, the investigated data agreed well with the modelling results.

Structure-Reactivity Relationships in a Small Library of Imine-Type Dynamic Covalent Materials: Determination of Rate and Equilibrium Constants Enables Model Prediction and Validation of a Unique Mechanical Softening in Dynamic Hydrogels.

The development of next generation soft and recyclable materials prominently features dynamic (reversible) chemistries such as host-guest, supramolecular, and dynamic covalent. Dynamic systems enable injectability, reprocessability, and time-dependent mechanical properties. These properties arise from the inherent relationship between the rate and equilibrium constants (RECs) of molecular junctions (cross-links) and the resulting macroscopic behavior of dynamic networks. However, few examples explicitly measure RECs while exploring this connection between molecular and material properties, particularly for polymeric hydrogel systems. Here we use dynamic covalent imine formation to study how single-point compositional changes in NH2-terminated nucleophiles affect binding constants and resulting hydrogel mechanical properties. We explored both model small molecule studies and model polymeric macromers, and found >3-decade change in RECs. Leveraging established relationships in the literature, we then developed a simple model to describe the cross-linking equilibrium and predict changes in hydrogel mechanical properties. Interestingly, we observed that a narrow ≈2-decade range of Keq's determine the bound fraction of imines. Our model allowed us to uncover a regime where adding cross-linker before saturation can decrease the cross-link density of a hydrogel. We then demonstrated the veracity of this predicted behavior experimentally. Notably this emergent behavior is not accounted for in covalent hydrogel theory. This study expands upon structure-reactivity relationships for imine formation, highlighting how quantitative determination of RECs facilitates predicting macroscopic behavior. Furthermore, while the present study focuses on dynamic covalent imine formation, the underlying principles of this work are applicable to the general bottom-up design of soft and recyclable dynamic materials.

Experimental study on the macroscopic and mesoscopic mechanical characteristics of deep damaged and fractured rock

Most of the rock surrounding deep roadways is in a fractured state; fractured rock has significant rheological properties, and the time-dependent mechanical properties of fractured rock affect excavation construction, support design, and long-term stability of deep roadways. Triaxial compression and mercury intrusion tests are conducted on the bearing characteristics of severely damaged and fractured rock samples, indicating the strength degradation properties of these samples. The evolution of the internal pore structure in damaged and fractured rock samples is analyzed in relation to changes in unloading points (pre-peak stage, peak point, and post-peak stage), leading to the establishment of a quantitative evaluation index for rock damage based on the porosity evolution. Short-term rheological testing is performed on rock samples with varying degrees of damage and fracture, demonstrating the evolution of creep and stress relaxation characteristics. The findings contribute to a deeper theoretical understanding of the post-peak mechanical properties of coal and rock masses, which hold significant theoretical implications and can inform research on long-term stability in underground engineering applications, such as deeply buried roadways, tunnels, and chambers.

Modelling the time-dependent mechanical properties of thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers with Gumbel distribution functions

In this paper, we propose a simple modelling method that accurately describes the time-dependent viscoelastic behaviour of thermoplastic and thermosetting solid polymers. We performed short-term creep and stress relaxation tests on representative samples of three major classes of polymers: an amorphous, a semi-crystalline thermoplastic and a thermosetting polymer. Then, to investigate the relationship between the model parameters and the material composition, we also tested thermoplastic matrix composites with different plasticiser contents. From the short-term tests, master curves were constructed with the use of the time–temperature superposition principle. Then, the temperature dependence of the obtained shift factors was described using the Arrhenius model. The resulting creep compliance and relaxation modulus master curves were normalised and modelled with a two-parameter cumulative Gumbel distribution function (CDF) and its complementary distribution function (CCDF). For the creep and stress relaxation master curves, the median error of modelling was less than 16 % and 16.5 % in all cases, respectively. Furthermore, it was less than 2 % for the thermosetting polymer, making this model an excellent tool for describing the creep and stress relaxation behaviour of thermosetting systems. In the case of the plasticised composites, we found a strong relationship between the material composition and the location parameter of the Gumbel model. Based on this, we developed a method that can be used to estimate the evolution of the creep compliance curve for any arbitrary OLA content (between 0 wt% and 16 wt%) at any desired temperature (between 22 °C and 70 °C).

Prediction of time-dependent concrete mechanical properties based on advanced deep learning models considering complex variables

Evaluating the mechanical properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity (MOE) of concrete is crucial for the design, construction, and quality control of engineering projects. Developing a comprehensive theoretical-based numerical model to predict the concrete mechanical properties is considered challenging, owing to the diversity of admixtures and curing environment affecting the performance of modern concrete. The deep learning (DL) model gives a feasible approach as data-driven methods for accurate prediction of various material properties these years. However, predicting time-dependent mechanical properties of modern concrete with complex mix constituents by DL algorithms is still confined so far. In this article, artificial neuron network (ANN) and long short-term memory (LSTM) based DL models were established to predict concrete compressive strength, tensile strength, and MOE at different ages, considering the mix design, curing condition, curing time and tension testing method as input variables. LSTM outperformed ANN in terms of the statistical indicators for accuracy evaluation with high training and testing time costs. Bidirectional modification and multi-head attention mechanism were implemented to further improve the prediction accuracy of LSTM. It is shown that the multi-head attention bidirectional LSTM had more precise predicting results (R2=0.9355 for compressive strength, R2=0.8930 for tensile strength, R2=0.9584 for MOE) and fitting of the mechanical property-age curves. The LSTM-based models provided a promising prediction tool for time-dependent concrete mechanical properties with complex input parameters.

Viscoelastic creep model and parameter inversion of bond interface in steel plate reinforced tunnel lining

The interface filler material (epoxy resin) used for reinforcing tunnel linings with steel plates exhibits time-dependent mechanical properties, commonly referred as creep behavior. The creep behavior of the filler material will significantly influence the long-term service performance of the reinforced tunnel, especially considering the design service life scale of 100 years. This paper presents an experimental test and mathematical modelling to illustrate the creep mechanical behavior of bond interfaces within shield tunnels reinforced with steel plates. It was observed that in the initial moments of stress application, the bond interface demonstrates an instantaneous response through elastic strain and on-set of creep deformation stage at maximum stress value. Three stages can be characterized in the creep deformation process: the decay creep stage, the steady-state creep stage and the accelerated creep stage. In the accelerated creep stage, the bond interface rapidly deteriorated after experiencing 90 % of the ultimate shear stress for 186 hours or 90 % of the ultimate tensile stress for 96 hours. Based on the fractional-order calculus theory and drawing inspiration from the modeling principles of classical component combination models, a constitutive equation that accurately characterizes the creep mechanical behavior of the bond interface between steel plates and concrete linings was formulated. The model parameters are inversely computed using the principle of least squares and the accuracy of this model is validated through a comparison with the results of the creep tests.

Enabling multi-stage high-temperature strength evolution prediction of ceramizable composites using a novel multi-field coupled model

Strength varies significantly under high-temperature environment, due to the inherent thermomechanical behavior of the ceramizable material and its coupling with possible chemical reactions. The complexity amplifies for composite materials, considering their multi-phase and multi-scale features, and more importantly, their complicated chemical reactions under high-temperature service conditions. This study proposes an innovative multi-field coupling theory framework for predicting the multi-stage evolution behavior of high-temperature mechanical properties of a ceramizable composite, through incorporating an extended chemical kinetics method, coupled deformation, mass diffusion and heat conduction. The developed model enables direct coupling and simultaneous solving of physical, chemical and thermal variables. It captures well the degradation of mechanical properties for the initial stage and the increase of strength for the later stage, along with the increasing of temperature. The validated model also enables well prediction of time-dependent mechanical properties at high service temperature, with an average error of 8.67% against experimental measured results. The developed method can serve as a general method for the prediction of high-temperature mechanical property of thermal protection composites and structures.

Performance of capsules in self-healing early-age concrete due to restrained shrinkage

Performance of capsules in concrete was evaluated numerically using a simulated ASTM C1581 restrained shrinkage test and experimentally measured concrete shrinkage strain data to determine their effectiveness in healing cracks in early-age concrete. The model accounts for the concrete’s time-dependent mechanical properties, and the capsule’s geometrical and mechanical properties, and depth. A finite element model was developed to simulate the concrete volume change due to autogenous and drying shrinkage and the corresponding state of stress, and fracture mechanics to trace crack initiation and propagation in a restrained shrinkage ring. The performance of capsules in self-healing early-age concrete was found to depend on the capsules’ geometry, the stiffness ratio of concrete-to-capsule, and bond strength-to-rupture strength ratio of concrete-to-capsule. Results reveal that corresponding ratios of concrete effective stiffness and bond strength at 28 days to the stiffness and rupture strength of the capsules provide a threshold limit after which capsules debond in self-healing early-age concrete.

Schiff base crosslinked hyaluronic acid hydrogels with tunable and cell instructive time-dependent mechanical properties

The dynamic interplay between cells and their native extracellular matrix (ECM) influences cellular behavior, imposing a challenge in biomaterial design. Dynamic covalent hydrogels are viscoelastic and show self-healing ability, making them a potential scaffold for recapitulating native ECM properties. We aimed to implement kinetically and thermodynamically distinct crosslinkers to prepare self-healing dynamic hydrogels to explore the arising properties and their effects on cellular behavior. To do so, aldehyde-substituted hyaluronic acid (HA) was synthesized to generate imine, hydrazone, and oxime crosslinked dynamic covalent hydrogels. Differences in equilibrium constants of these bonds yielded distinct properties including stiffness, stress relaxation, and self-healing ability. The effects of degree of substitution (DS), polymer concentration, crosslinker to aldehyde ratio, and crosslinker functionality on hydrogel properties were evaluated. The self-healing ability of hydrogels was investigated on samples of the same and different crosslinkers and DS to obtain hydrogels with gradient properties. Subsequently, human dermal fibroblasts were cultured in 2D and 3D to assess the cellular response considering the dynamic properties of the hydrogels. Moreover, assessing cell spreading and morphology on hydrogels having similar modulus but different stress relaxation rates showed the effects of matrix viscoelasticity with higher cell spreading in slower relaxing hydrogels.

An analytical model for liquefaction-induced manhole uplifting

Liquefaction-induced manhole uplifting typically occurs in urban areas. In some field surveys, the uplifting phenomenon may damage lifelines and obstruct the passage of rescue transportation. The mechanism of manhole uplifting has been proposed and developed to rapidly evaluate the extent of manhole uplifting using the limit equilibrium method. However, owing to the lack of an energy-dissipation process, this method can only predict the maximum uplifting displacement of the manholes in the final stage. This study aims to develop an analytical model to describe uplifting displacement and evolution during shaking. The analytical model based on the kinetic relationship plays a major role in the evaluation of the time-dependent mechanical properties of manholes, especially when we consider the viscous-damping force. Three series of centrifuge modeling tests to study the manhole uplifting behavior were conducted to validate the proposed model. The proposed analytical model shows promising potential to serve as an intermediate tool for evaluating manhole uplifting while maintaining simplicity in practical cases.

Electrically Powered Dissipative Hydrogel Networks Reveal Transient Stiffness Properties for Out-of-Equilibrium Operations.

Living systems use dissipative processes to enable precise spatiotemporal control over various functions, including the transient modulation of the stiffness of tissues, which, however, is challenging to achieve in soft materials. Here, we report a new platform to program hydrogel films with tunable, time-dependent mechanical properties under out-of-equilibrium conditions, powered by electricity. We show that the lifetime of the transient network of a surface-confined hydrogel film can be effectively controlled by programming the generation of an electrochemically oxidized mediator in the presence of a chemical or photoreducing agent in solution. It is, therefore, electrically possible to direct the transient stiffening or softening of the hydrogel film, enabling high modularity of the material functions with precise spatiotemporal control. Temporally controlled operations of the hydrogel films are demonstrated for the on-demand, dose-controlled release of multiple model protein payloads from electrode arrays using the present electrically powered dissipative system. This demonstration of electrically driven transient modulation of the stiffness properties of hydrogel films represents an important step toward the engineering of dissipative materials for developing future biomedical applications that can harness the temporal, adaptive properties of this new class of materials.

Creep behavior of dry and saturated medium-grain sandstone and its relationship with conventional mechanical properties

With the large scale mining of coal and the increase of abandoned goafs under weakly cemented aquifer strata in Western China, it is urgent to study the time dependent mechanical properties of water sensitive aquifer strata. In this paper, creep behavior of dry and saturated medium-grain sandstone, which represent two limit states affected by water, were studied and compared. The results showed that water greatly weakens the compressive strength of medium-grained sandstone, but the difference in axial strain between dry and saturated rock samples decreases with the increase of confining pressure. The creep compression volume of rocks decreases with the increase of deviatoric stress, and only under low confining pressure does the creep volume of rocks exhibit expansion. There is an order of magnitude difference in creep strain between medium grained sandstone and other common rocks. The instantaneous elastic modulus has a negative exponential relationship with deviating stress. The creep rate has a positive exponential relationship with deviating stress. Based on Burges model with exponential damage variables, the law of the influence of confining pressure on creep model parameters has been discussed. The linear relationship between elastic modulus of medium-grained sandstone and parameters of Burgers model with damage was found. The research results are conducive to the convenient prediction of creep behavior of medium grained sandstone engineering and the long-term stability control of the surrounding rock.

Dynamic Exchange in 3D Cell Culture Hydrogels Based on Crosslinking of Cyclic Thiosulfinates.

Dynamic polymer materials are highly valued substrates for 3D cell culture due to their viscoelasticity, a time-dependent mechanical property that can be tuned to resemble the energy dissipation of native tissues. Herein, we report the coupling of a cyclic thiosulfinate, mono-S-oxo-4-methyl asparagusic acid, to a 4-arm PEG-OH to prepare a disulfide-based dynamic covalent hydrogel with the addition of 4-arm PEG-thiol. Ring opening of the cyclic thiosulfinate by nucleophilic substitution results in the rapid formation of a network showing a viscoelastic fluid-like behaviour and relaxation rates modulated by thiol content through thiol-disulfide exchange, whereas its viscoelastic behaviour upon application as a small molecule linear crosslinker is solid-like. Further introduction of 4-arm PEG-vinylsulfone in the network yields a hydrogel with weeks-long cell culture stability, permitting 3D culture of cell types that lack robust proliferation, such as human pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hPSC-CMs). These cells display native behaviours such as cell elongation and spontaneous beating as a function of the hydrogel's mechanical properties. We demonstrate that the mode of dynamic cyclic thiosulfinate crosslinker presentation within the network can result in different stress relaxation profiles, opening the door to model tissues with disparate mechanics in 3D cell culture.

Infrared transparent CaO–Ta2O5–Al2O3 glass-ceramics with high microhardness: Crystallization behavior and microstructure development

Infrared (IR) transparent materials with longer optical window and higher mechanical properties are highly demanded in optical communication, IR imaging, sensing and laser optics. Although transparent ceramics have higher mechanical strength, their production is still difficult using conventional sintering techniques. Herein, new IR transparent CaO–Ta2O5–Al2O3 glass-ceramics (TGCs) containing cubic ɑ-CaTa2O6 nanocrystals are reported. They exhibit a broadband transmitting window (0.5–5.5 μm) with high IR transmittance (∼80 %) and high refractive indices (nd = 1.96, n1530 = 1.93). The effects of heat treatment holding time on the structure and properties of TGCs are investigated. A slightly increased proportion of crystalline phase is determined by Rietveld refinement. 27Al magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS NMR) spectroscopy reveals that partial Al[4] and almost all Al[5] in the precursor glass are converted to Al[6] in the residual glass after crystallization. CaTa2O6 nanocrystals with amorphous shells are present within the nanodroplet domains, and a significant Ta enrichment is clearly observed. A confined crystallization process is proposed to understand the heat treatment time dependent structural characteristics and mechanical properties of the obtained TGCs. Vickers hardness (HV) of 12.01 GPa and Young's modulus (E) of 248.8 GPa are achieved in TGCs, making them promising candidates as high-performance IR materials for optical applications.

Thermal Cracking in High Volume of Fly Ash and GGBFS Concrete

Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) are found to control the maximum temperature and the accompanying thermal gradients effectively. However, SCMs also lead to low early age strength development. Thus, it is crucial to understand the cracking behaviour of SCMs-based concrete affected by the mix design parameters. In this paper, the thermal cracking resistance was evaluated using a rigid cracking frame (RCF) with a computer-controlled temperature profile. The temperature profile was determined using the software ConcreteWorks by assuming the centre point of the mass concrete. The free shrinkage frame (FSF) and match-curing oven follow the same temperature profile as RCF to measure the free total deformation and time-dependent mechanical properties of concrete, respectively. An analytical model was proposed to calculate the autogenous shrinkage and the thermal stress separately. A time-dependent cracking risk coefficient allowing to estimate the risk of early age cracking of concrete was also proposed.

Options for Improving Performance of Additively Manufactured Nickel-Base Superalloys for Gas Turbine Applications

Abstract Additive manufacturing (AM) has been increasingly used for gas turbine (GT) components over the last decade. Many different components can be successfully designed, printed, and used in the gas turbine. However, there still exist questions on the use of AM components in hot-section areas. These components are typically fabricated from nickel-base superalloys that are known to have superior mechanical properties at elevated temperatures (e.g., creep and fatigue). Research over the last decade has been primarily focused on the printability of nickel-base superalloys, and there still exists a gap in understanding the high temperature processing–structure–properties–performance relationships of these alloy systems. This study evaluates the effect of processing methods, such as laser-based powder bed fusion (LBPBF) and electron beam powder bed fusion (EBPBF), on the resulting microstructure and time dependent mechanical properties of a nickel-base superalloy (ABD®900). Material after each build was subsequently heat treated using both near-solvus (at or slightly below the gamma prime solvus temperature) and super-solvus (above gamma prime solvus temperature) conditions. Multistep aging was then carried out to produce a bi-modal distribution of gamma prime precipitates as is typical in similar alloys. Microstructure was evaluated in both the as-built and fully heat-treated conditions for each processing technique. Mechanical testing was conducted to evaluate the effects of AM build methods, microstructure, and heat treatment on high temperature mechanical properties. The results show that there are several methods which can be used to improve the performance of components built using AM. The creep testing results for ABD900-AM clearly show an improvement in properties (rupture life and ductility) at all test conditions compared to testing in the prior AM alloy of the same class. A super-solvus heat treatment improved creep rupture strength by ∼3× in the LBPBF material compared to the near-solvus heat treatment. These findings provide directions for future studies to advance the overall state of gas turbine technology by enabling ABD®900-AM material and other AM alloys to be used in more innovative hot-section components.

Research of the workability, mechanical and hydration mechanism of coal gangue-construction solid waste backfilling materials

In order to effectively address the issues of coal gangue emissions and the accumulation of construction solid waste, a combined treatment of coal gangue and construction solid waste can be implemented. In this study, a composite backfilling material was designed, with coal gangue and construction solid waste as the main aggregates. Through laboratory experiments, the time-dependent flow performance, mechanical properties, and microstructure of the material were analyzed under different proportions of factors including fly ash content, substitution rate of construction solid waste, mass concentration, and water reducing agent content. The research results indicate the following: The effects of reducing agent content, mass concentration, fly ash content, and substitution rate of construction solid waste on flow performance increased in that order. The addition of construction solid waste is negatively correlated with the strength of filling materials. The appropriate substitution ratios for FA, construction solid waste, mass concentration, and reducing agent were determined to be 21 %, 50 %, 80 %, and 0.6 %, respectively. The CH component in the material exhibited a trend of initially increasing and then decreasing, providing a large amount of reactants for secondary hydration reactions and strengthening the internal structure of the material. In the middle stage of hydration, FA and activators played an important role in the later stage by providing raw materials for secondary hydration, enriching the internal composition of the structure, and enhancing the backfilling performance of the backfilling material. This study can achieve the recycling and utilization of coal gangue and construction solid waste, and enhance the stability and bearing capacity of backfilling materials.

Comprehensive study on the hydration kinetics, mechanical properties and autogenous shrinkage of cement pastes during steam curing

Steam curing is a crucial stage for the strength development of steam-cured concrete. This study comprehensively investigated the hydration kinetics, mechanical properties, and autogenous shrinkage (AS) of cement pastes during steam curing. A hydration-dependent analytical method was proposed to analyze the mechanisms governing the development of mechanical properties and AS of steam-cured cement pastes (SCPs). Results revealed that in this investigated curing regimes, the peak hydration rate of SCPs was approximately 7 times higher than that of standard-cured pastes (NCPs). SCPs exhibited faster time-dependent mechanical property development but slower hydration-dependent mechanical property development than NCPs. This difference was primarily attributed to variations in initial structure establishment and free water content. Moreover, an elevated curing temperature reduced the growth rate of hydration-dependent AS due to large capillary pores and low surface tension, which suggested that AS should not be considered as a cause of heat damage to SCPs.