Time-averaged Shear-wave Velocity Research Articles

Adjusting Central and Eastern United States ground-motion models for use in the Coastal Plain considering the sediment thickness

This study aims to develop adjustment factors for ground-motion models such as Pezeshk et al., which were developed for regions outside the Coastal Plain to be used for sites within the Coastal Plain region. The adjustment factors developed are a function of sediment thickness and rupture distance [Formula: see text] in the Coastal Plain region. We use the newly developed sediment thickness contour maps by Boyd et al. Also, the adjustment factors are developed using a combined data set, which consists of the Next Generation Attenuation (NGA)-East original data set, the data set from Chapman and Guo, and the newly compiled and verified data set by Thompson et al. We calculate residuals by taking the difference between the logarithms of the observed data and those predicted by the Pezeshk et al. ground-motion model (GMM), considering the site amplification model of Stewart et al. and utilizing the combined data set. This model is applicable for [Formula: see text] as far as 1000 km. We perform residual analyses using a mixed-effects regression to partition the total residuals into between-event and within-event components. To develop the correction factors for stations within the Coastal Plain region, we fit the within-event residuals to an equation that is a function of sediment thickness and [Formula: see text]. The results indicate that for stations within the Coastal Plain region, for most periods, the residual trend has been eliminated (with respect to sediment thickness, [Formula: see text], and time-averaged shear wave velocity in the first 30 m under the surface, V S30) using the proposed adjustment factors. The results of this study can be utilized in seismic hazard and risk analyses for sites within the Coastal Plain.

Evaluation of Site Terms for Ground-Motion Models for South America

ABSTRACT The time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the top 30 m, VS30, is used to represent the site condition in many ground-motion models (GMMs). Regionalized GMMs account for regional differences in the ln(VS30) scaling by including region-specific coefficients for the site term. For example, recent GMMs developed for subduction zone earthquakes as part of the Next Generation Attenuation-Subduction (NGA-Sub) project include region-specific VS30 scaling for seven regions: South America, Central America, Japan, New Zealand, Taiwan, Cascadia (Pacific Northwest America), and Alaska. Of these seven regions, South America has the largest within-event standard deviation. One cause for the larger within-event standard deviation is a weaker relation between VS30 and the site term in South America compared to other regions. A cause for this weak correlation is that most of the VS30 values for the South American region in the NGA-Sub data set are based on proxies. The relation between VS30 and the site term improves significantly for periods less than 1 s if only stations with measured VS30 are considered, but the correlation is weak for periods greater than 1 s even for stations with measured VS30, indicating that, for the South America region, VS30 is not well correlated with the deeper shear-wave velocity profile that controls the long-period amplification. To improve the site terms for South America, we develop a model based on the horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) from microtremors, similar to the approach used by Pinilla-Ramos et al. (2022) for California. The data set includes 660 recordings from 51 earthquakes recorded at 274 sites. The site-term model includes the period-dependent HVSR amplitude and the geometric mean of the average HVSR amplitude over the frequency band of 0.25 to 15 Hz. Including these two parameters reduces the standard deviation of site-specific site terms over the period range 0.3–3 s, with the largest reduction in the period range 1–2 s. This site-term model can be incorporated into subduction GMMs and implemented in probabilistic seismic hazard analyses for South America.

Site database for national strong motion stations in mainland China

Ground motion amplification and spectral content are significantly influenced by local soil and geological conditions. This article summarizes the development of the China Site Database (CNSDB) in the China Ground Motion Flatfile project. CNSDB contains site information for 1450 strong-motion recording stations within the National Strong Motion Observation Network System (NSMONS) in China. The primary site information in CNSDB includes the time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the upper 30 m (VS30), and site class according to the seismic design code in China. These site data are derived using different methods from various data sources. Priority is given to approaches that minimize bias and dispersion relative to measurement-based results. Recommended VS30 values and site class are derived from reliable velocity profiles or field survey results whenever available. A China-specific VS30 extrapolation model is developed using 6179 engineering boreholes and is then utilized to estimate VS30 for profiles <30 m. VS30 values and site class are estimated from horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) curves of earthquake recordings using machine-learning techniques. For the remaining sites without velocity profiles or sufficient ground-motion recordings for HVSR computation, VS30 values are determined as the weighted average of proxy-based estimates using geological attributes, topographic slope, and terrain categories. We also discuss the potential application of CNSDB in the development of China seismic hazard map considering site amplification factors.

Empirical models for Fourier amplitude spectrum of ground-motion calibrated on data from the Iranian plateau

Ground-motion models (GMMs) are frequently used in engineering seismology to estimate ground motion intensities. The majority of GMMs predict the response spectral ordinates (such as spectral acceleration) of a single-degree-of-freedom oscillator because of their common application in engineering design practices. Response spectra show how an idealized structure reacts to applied ground motion; however, they do not necessarily represent the physics of ground motion. The functional forms of the response spectra GMMs are built around ideas taken from the Fourier spectral concept. Assuming the validity of Fourier spectral concepts in the response spectral domain could cause physically inexplainable effects. In this study, using a mixed-effects regression technique, we introduce four models capable of predicting the Fourier amplitude spectrum that investigates the impact of incorporating random-effect event and station terms and variations in using a mixed-effects regression technique in one or two steps using truncated dataset or all data (nontruncated dataset). All data consists of 2581 three-component strong ground motion data resulting from 424 events with magnitude ranging from 4.0 up to 7.4, from 1976 to 2020, and 706 stations. The truncated dataset’s records, events, and stations are reduced to 2071, 408, and 636, respectively. As part of this study, we develop GMMs to predict the Fourier amplitude spectrum for the Iranian plateau within the frequency range of 0.3–30 Hz. We adopted simple, functional forms for four models, and we included a limited number of predictors, namely Mw (moment magnitude), Rjb (Joyner–Boore distance), and VS30 (time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the top 30 m). Due to statistical analyses, the style-of-faulting term was excluded from the final functional forms. The robustness of the derived models is indicated by unbiased residual variation with predictor variables.

Empirical ground-motion basin response in the California Great Valley, Reno, Nevada, and Portland, Oregon

We assess how well the Next-Generation Attenuation-West 2 (NGA-West2) ground-motion models (GMMs), which are used in the US Geological Survey’s (USGS) National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM) for crustal faults in the western United States, predict the observed basin response in the Great Valley of California, the Reno basin in Nevada, and Portland and Tualatin basins in Oregon. These GMMs rely on site parameters such as the time-averaged shear-wave velocity ( VS) in the upper 30 m of Earth’s crust ( VS30) and depths to 1.0 and 2.5 km/s shear-wave isosurfaces ( Z1.0 and Z2.5) to capture basin effects and were developed using observations and simulations primarily from the Los Angeles region in southern California. Using ground-motion records from mostly small-to-moderate earthquakes and mixed-effects regression analysis, we find that the GMMs perform well with our local basin-depth models for the California Great Valley. With our local basin-depth models for Reno, the GMMs do not perform as well for this relatively shallow basin and exhibit little sensitivity to the basin parameters used in the NGA-West2 GMMs. We also find good performance for the local Z1.0 model across the Portland region, whereas the local Z2.5 model provides little predictive power except at sites in the deepest part of the Tualatin basin. Additional work could improve the performance of the site and basin terms in the NGA-West2 GMMs for regions with geologic structure different than the deep basins in southern California and the Great Valley. In addition, we find significant discrepancies among the GMMs in how the uncertainty in the ground motion varies with basin depth and pseudospectral period. Our results can help guide seismic hazard analyses on whether to include these local basin-depth models.

Basin effects from 3D simulated ground motions in the Greater Los Angeles region for use in seismic hazard analyses

We develop basin-depth-scaling models (i.e. “basin terms”) from the long-period ([Formula: see text]) simulated ground motions of the Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) CyberShake project for use in seismic hazard analyses at sites within the sedimentary basins of southern California. Basin terms use the Next Generation Attenuation (NGA)-West-2 ground-motion models (GMMs) as reference models and use their functional forms with slight modifications. We investigate the use of two approaches to incorporate the time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the upper 30 m ([Formula: see text]) in these calculations and find that the use of site-specific and uniform [Formula: see text] has minor effects on the resulting basin terms for this data set. By centering the simulated ground motions on the basin terms, we separate the information from the simulations about absolute ground-motion level from information relating to the relative amplifications, such as the differences between shallow- and deep-basin sites. Recent observations from sedimentary basins of southern California indicate that additional amplification effect may persist at relatively shallow basin depths (i.e. the GMM basin terms should have positive values when differential depths, [Formula: see text], are near zero), and we present models for “centered” and “adjusted” basin-depth scaling models that reflect this potential. The simulation-modified GMMs are appropriate for crustal sources and for deep-basin sites ([Formula: see text]) within basins of the Greater Los Angeles region, for the magnitudes and distances defined by each of the reference NGA-West-2 GMMs.

Performance evaluation of parameters as estimators of seismic site effects in northern South America

In this study, we investigate the performance of several parameters as estimators of seismic site effects for sites in northern South America. Investigated parameters include the conventional time-averaged shear wave velocity in the upper 30 m (VS30), the predominant period of the site, and horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios. To assess the performance of these parameters, we estimate the amplification of seismic waves within shallow soil layers (i.e., site effects) at recording stations across northern South America. The site amplification is estimated by analyzing the residuals calculated from ground-motion records with respect to model predictions for hard-rock site conditions. Several functional forms were introduced to express the linear site amplification in terms of the explored parameters. We evaluate the efficacy of the parameters, as well as their advantages and limitations, by considering their impact in the site-to-site standard deviation of the residuals between observations and predictions using the introduced functional forms.

Development of a GIS-Based Predicted-VS30 Map of Türkiye Using Geological and Topographical Parameters: Case Study for the Region Affected by the 6 February 2023 Kahramanmaraş Earthquakes

Abstract The time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the upper 30 m of a site (VS30) is virtually essential in characterizing local soil conditions for multiple purposes, including estimation of site effects, anticipated ground-motion levels, seismic hazards, and the shape of design spectra. Considering the significance of this proxy and that a number of the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency of Türkiye (AFAD) strong ground-motion stations across Türkiye lack assigned VS30 values, a comprehensive study was performed herein to develop empirical equations for estimating VS30 values in Türkiye based on relationships between 432 VS30 measurements at the AFAD stations, geologic units, and topographic data. Initially, units in the geological digital maps were reclassified into four geological periods. Statistical relationships between geological period classes and VS30 samples were interpreted to determine the VS30 boundaries for each period class. Second, VS30 estimations with topographic parameters by utilizing a 2D trend surface analysis method were performed. The resultant two-parameter polynomial coefficients were associated with VS30 according to the least squares principle, leading to the development of topographic functions for VS30 estimation under each geological period class (R2=0.601). Thereby, digital VS30 estimation maps were produced in grid (90 m) format that may be queried in a Geographic Information Systems environment. Moreover, the quantile regression method was also utilized to determine the coefficients of the envelope curve corresponding to a given exceedance probability (p) for the worst case scenario. Finally, to evaluate the accuracy of the proposed equations, the verifications performed with the VS30 data at the selected AFAD stations in the region affected by the 6 February 2003 earthquakes have also presented successful outcomes. Considering the availability of VS30 maps derived from digital elevation data in the literature, this study offers novel equations that take into account geological units and provide crucial background data for the regional seismic hazard-based risk assessments in Türkiye, especially for site effect studies using VS30 as a regional site classification parameter.

Small-strain site response of soft soils in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta region of California conditioned on VS30 and mHVSR

Sites located in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta region of California typically have peaty-organic soils near the ground surface, which are characteristically soft, with shear wave velocities as low as 30 m/s. These unusually soft geotechnical conditions, which are outside the range of applicability of existing ergodic site amplification models, can be anticipated to produce significant site effects during earthquake shaking. We evaluate site response for 36 seismic stations in the Delta region using non-ergodic methods with low-amplitude ground motion data. We model first-order site effects using a period-dependent relation conditioned on the 30 m time-averaged shear wave velocity ( VS30). Relative to extrapolations of global ergodic models, this Delta-specific model provides lower and higher levels of amplification for short and long periods, respectively. While the local model provides unbiased predictions for Delta sites as a whole, it smooths over site-specific effects such as resonant peaks. Microtremor-based horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratios (mHVSRs) were measured for 34 sites, from which additional site parameters such as peak frequency ( fp), peak amplitude ( ap), and average mHVSR amplitude over some frequency bandwidth ([Formula: see text]) are derived. Sites with prominent mHVSR peaks are found to often exhibit site resonance effects, while sites without prominent peak features generally do not. A modified Ricker wavelet pulse function conditioned on fp is used to model resonance effects, while a logistic function whose amplitude is correlated with [Formula: see text] is used to model general broadband amplification that transitions to zero at long periods. These mHVSR-informed models are implemented as additive components to the VS30-scaling model. Relative to a global ergodic model, the VS30-scaling model does not appreciably change the site-to-site aleatory variability ([Formula: see text]) for periods shorter than about 1.5 s but reduces [Formula: see text] by ~0.1 (natural log units) at long periods. When the mHVSR-informed model components are used, [Formula: see text] is reduced by ~0.05 to 0.1 for short-to-intermediate periods (up to ~2 s). A model for nonlinear effects, derived from nonlinear ground response analyses, will be presented in a separate paper.

ZONATION OF SEISMIC VULNERABILITY LEVELS IN SOUTH BENGKULU REGENCY, INDONESIA FOR DISASTER-BASED REGIONAL PLANNING

The accurate prediction and prevention of earthquakes remains challenging. Consequently, the primary approach to mitigate the impact of earthquakes is through disaster risk reduction efforts. One significant strategy involves conducting seismic vulnerability analyses based on disaster scenarios. This study aims to identify and map areas with varying levels of seismic vulnerability, analyzing the factors contributing to vulnerability in the South Bengkulu Regency. Secondary data, including peak ground acceleration (PGA) values, were collected, along with microtremor data obtained through the Horizontal to Vertical Spectral Ratio (HVSR) method. The recorded microtremor data serve as input parameters for PGA, Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI), Seismic Vulnerability Index (Kg), shear wave velocity (Vs), and the time-averaged shear wave velocity for the first 30 m depths (Vs30) values. The findings reveal that, overall, seismic vulnerability in the South Bengkulu Regency can be categorized as low. However, specific areas, particularly in the southwestern and northeastern zones, exhibit relatively higher levels of vulnerability. The heightened vulnerability in these areas is attributed to elevated PGA values, despite the region's generally high soil density, which acts as a mitigating factor against earthquake threats.

Ensemble Region-Specific GMMs for Subduction Earthquakes

Abstract This study develops data-driven global and region-specific ground-motion models (GMMs) for subduction earthquakes using a weighted average ensemble model to combine four different nonparametric supervised machine-learning (ML) algorithms, including an artificial neural network, a kernel ridge regressor, a random forest regressor, and a support vector regressor. To achieve this goal, we train individual models using a subset of the Next Generation Attenuation-Subduction (NGA-Sub) data set, including 9559 recordings out of 153 interface and intraslab earthquakes recorded at 3202 different stations. A grid search is used to find each model’s best hyperparameters. Then, we use an equally weighted average ensemble approach to combine these four models. Ensemble modeling is a technique that combines the strengths of multiple ML algorithms to mitigate their weaknesses. The ensemble model considers moment magnitude (M), rupture distance (Rrup), time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the upper 30 m (VS30), and depth to the top of the rupture plane (Ztor), as well as tectonic and region as input parameters, and predicts various median orientation-independent horizontal component ground-motion intensity measures such as peak ground displacement, peak ground velocity, peak ground acceleration, and 5%-damped pseudospectral acceleration values at spectral periods of 0.01–10 s in log scale. Although no functional form is defined, the response spectra and the distance and magnitude scaling trends of the weighted average ensemble model are consistent and comparable with the NGA-Sub GMMs, with slightly lower standard deviations. A mixed effects regression analysis is used to partition the total aleatory variability into between-event, between-station, and event-site-corrected components. The derived global GMMs are applicable to interface earthquakes with M 4.9–9.12, 14≤Rrup≤1000 km, and Ztor≤47 km for sites having VS30values between 95 and 2230 m/s. For intraslab events, the derived global GMMs are applicable to M 4.0–8.0, 28≤Rrup≤1000 km, and 30≤Ztor≤200 km for sites having VS30 values between 95 and 2100 m/s.

Sediment thickness map of United States Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain Strata, and their influence on earthquake ground motions

With the recent successful accounting of basin depth ground-motion adjustments in seismic hazard analyses for select areas of the western United States, we move toward implementing similar adjustments in the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains by constructing a sediment thickness model and evaluating multiple relevant site amplification models for central and eastern United States seismic hazard analyses. We digitize and combine existing sediment thickness data sets into a composite surface that delineates the base of Cretaceous sediments under the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the base of Mesozoic sediments under the Gulf Coastal Plain. Amplification models dependent on sediment thickness, site natural period, and source-to-site path length are compared with data sets of observed ground motions to evaluate the ability of the new models to improve ground motion estimates. We find that the amplification models can account for observed trends in sediment-thickness and period-dependent residuals, but some tuning is required. For example, the model of Chapman and Guo requires a reference VS30, the time-averaged shear-wave velocity within 30 m of the Earth’s surface, for non-Coastal Plain sites, which we estimate to be between about 1 and 2 km/s. Along with our sediment thickness model, we estimate a velocity profile for application to the Harmon et al. site-natural-period-based model in order to best match the Chapman and Guo period dependence for a broad range of sediment thicknesses. The Next Generation of Attenuation models for the eastern United States Gulf Coast path-based adjustment models can also account for seismic attenuation in the Coastal Plain sediments and reduce the standard deviation of total residuals. If enacted in the U.S. Geological Survey National Seismic Hazard Model, these amplification models will reduce predicted short-period (&lt;1 s) and increase predicted long-period (&gt;1 s) ground motions in the Coastal Plains appreciably.

Development of the Site Characterization Database for the 2022 New Zealand National Seismic Hazard Model

Abstract This article presents the development of the site characterization database for the 2022 New Zealand National Seismic Hazard Model update. This database summarizes the site characterization parameters at past and present GeoNet seismic monitoring network instrument locations, including strong-motion, short-period, and broadband seismometer stations. Site characterization parameters required to assess and improve empirical ground-motion models and those used in codified seismic design frameworks internationally have been included in the database. Measurement uncertainty was assigned, and the quality of the data used to assign each parameter was classified. The site period (T0) was the most well constrained of all the site parameters, with almost half of the database classified based on high-quality measurements, with these dominated by microtremor-based horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio. Although there was an improvement in the quality of the parameters representing the time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the uppermost 30 m of the profile (VS30), little site-specific data were available, with almost no information for rock sites. Most of these classifications were based on national maps or geologic interpretation. Depth-based parameters (Z1.0 and Z2.5) had the lowest quality overall, with very few direct measurements available to constrain these values. Despite these limitations, the quality of parameters assigned to instrument locations has improved and greatly expanded previous databases through the assignment of parameter values to the entire GeoNet seismic network.

Development of shear-wave velocity profiles and kappa compatible with Ground Motion model for Taiwan

A new velocity model (GMM) compatible with a ground motion prediction model (GMM) for Taiwan is presented in this study. The model is developed using the data set extracted from the flatfile compiled for Taiwan Senior Seismic Hazard Analysis Committee (SSHAC) level 3 project (NCREE, 2015). The Phung et al. (2020) ergodic Sa GMM was used as a backbone model for estimating the site amplification in the frequency domain using inverse Random vibration theory (IRVT). The main motivation for developing a velocity model is that the estimation of the site scaling in terms of the time-averaged shear-wave velocity over the top 30 m (VS30), the method also provides the corresponding depth-dependent VS(z) profiles and the value for the selected VS30 value as a result of the inverse quarter-wave-length method (IQWL). Not all of the empirical amplification can be explained by the 1-D VS profiles andvalues. For soft sites (VS30 &lt; 500 m/s), and intermediate periods (0.5-2.0 sec), there is additional amplification in the empirical data which is attributed to 3-D path and site effects. Using the proposed method, the resulting GMM provides a VS profile, k, and 3-D effect for each VS30 value, which provides a more informative handoff of ground-motion information for use in site-specific site response studies.

Lateral variations of shear wave velocity (VS) profile and VS30 over gentle terrain

Lateral variations of shear wave velocity (VS) profile and time-averaged shear wave velocity in the upper 30 m (VS30) are important indicators of site condition and significant contributors to uncertainty in earthquake ground motion and seismic hazards. Few previous studies involved in quantifying these lateral variations, especially at short distances, due to limited data at closely spaced sites. This study quantitatively investigated the lateral variation of VS profile and VS30 over plain and piedmont terrains, focusing on short distances ranging from hundreds of meters to several kilometers. 2510 plain and 749 piedmont borehole profiles from the mainland China borehole profile database were employed to examine these variations using the variogram as the geo-statistics tool. The main findings include: 1) Over plain terrain, the variation in site conditions between sites does not significantly increase with separation distance within a certain range (typically from 1 km to 3–5 km). Over piedmont terrain, site condition variation steadily increases with distance. 2) The variation of site condition over piedmont terrain is higher than that over plain terrain. Nonetheless, for both terrains, the dispersion of site condition between sites at distance of <1 km is engineering negligible, and the correlation of site conditions between sites within 5 km remains strong; 3) For both terrains, the lateral variation of VS in deeper layers is higher than that in shallower layers. The study outcomes emphasize the importance of incorporating the information of nearby measurements in site condition estimations. The study outcomes can also be utilized in the optimization of borehole sampling design for microzonation projects and the evaluation of site condition dispersion at inferred sites.

A site amplification model for Switzerland based on site-condition indicators and incorporating local response as measured at seismic stations

AbstractThe spatial estimation of the soil response is one of the key ingredients for the modelling of earthquake risk. We present a ground motion amplification model for Switzerland, developed as part of a national-scale earthquake risk model. The amplification model is based on local estimates of soil response derived for about 240 instrumented sites in Switzerland using regional seismicity data by means of empirical spectral modelling techniques. These local measures are then correlated to continuous layers of topographic and geological soil condition indicators (multi-scale topographic slopes, a lithological classification of the soil, a national geological model of bedrock depth) and finally mapped at the national scale resorting to regression kriging as geostatistical interpolation technique. The obtained model includes amplification maps for PGV (peak ground velocity), PSA (pseudo-spectral acceleration) at periods of 1.0, 0.6 and 0.3 s; the modelled amplification represents the linear soil response, relative to a reference rock profile with VS30 (time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the uppermost 30 m of soil column) = 1105 m/s. Each of these amplification maps is accompanied by two layers quantifying its site-to-site and single-site, within event variabilities, respectively (epistemic and aleatory uncertainties). The PGV, PSA(1.0 s) and PSA(0.3 s) maps are additionally translated to macroseismic intensity aggravation layers. The national-scale amplification model is validated by comparing it with empirical measurements of soil response at stations not included in the calibration dataset, with existing city-scale amplification models and with macroseismic intensity observations from historical earthquakes. The model is also included in the Swiss ShakeMap workflow.

Geophysical surveys in the Kashmir valley (J&K Himalayas) part II: Anomalous seismic site-effects and exploration of alternative site classification schemes

Extensive geophysical surveys (MHVSR and MASW) conducted for the microzonation of the Kashmir Valley, Himalayas, revealed unexpected dynamic characteristics at certain sites pointing out the weak relationship between fundamental frequency (f0) and time-averaged shear wave velocity over 30 m depth (VS,30). Unusual low-frequency amplification at stiff soil sites and high-frequency amplification at weathered rock sites was obtained. On the contrary, high-frequency amplification was attained at a soft soil site over shallow bedrock. Instances of topographic amplification on slopes, hills, and valleys were encountered. Consequently, the commonly used VS,30-based single-proxy site classification failed to explain these atypical site effects, thus underscoring the caution to be exercised for site classification in geologically complex regions. These findings motivated the documentation of the anomalies and the search for the most suitable site characterisation scheme for the geological deposits of the Kashmir Valley. The coupled MHVSR-VS,30 proxy approach accomplished the best results for the study region.

VS30-based relationship for Chinese site classification

Classification of engineering sites is essential when considering site conditions for seismic fortification in seismic design codes. However, because of different site classification methods, it is difficult for Chinese seismological and engineering communities to share site metadata (e.g., site classes) and relevant results with international communities. This issue also prevents the Chinese communities from utilizing well-established models based on the time-averaged shear wave velocity for the top 30 m (VS30). This study aims to close the gap and develop a consistent VS30-based site classification method. We first assemble the shear wave velocity (VS) profile data from various sites in China, Japan, and California to study the statistical characteristics of VS30 and the equivalent shear wave velocity (VSe, time-averaged within soil layers for ≤ 20 m, which is used in Chinese site classification). We then investigate the efficiency of site classification by VS30 and VSe alone, respectively. We find that the single VSe parameter is insufficient to distinguish different Chinese site classes, especially for site classes III and IV (which consider soil layers deeper than 20 m). In contrast, the VS30 parameter can effectively differentiate Chinese site classes from I0 to IV. A new VS30-based site classification method for Chinese sites is then developed. The boundaries of VS30 for each Chinese site class are determined by maximizing the rate of correctness. Our new VS30-based classification facilitates the connection of Chinese site classes with well-developed VS30-based models and site data sharing between Chinese and international scientific communities.

Seismic microzonation mapping of Greater Vancouver based on various site classification metrics

The goal of the multi-year seismic microzonation mapping project for Greater Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, is to produce seismic hazard maps inclusive of local site effects, in particular seismic hazard specific to one-dimensional site response and three-dimensional Georgia sedimentary basin amplification, as well as liquefaction and landslide hazard potential. We explore the variability in key seismic site characterization measures most often used for seismic microzonation mapping to evaluate the impact on mapping and communication of seismic microzonation of Greater Vancouver. This study focuses on the comparison of seismic microzonation maps of Greater Vancouver based on up to three seismic site term parameters and their associated classification schemes: 1) the time-averaged shear-wave velocity (Vs) of the upper 30 m (Vs30) and associated Canadian National Building Code (NBC) site class; 2) Vs30-based site classification proposed for the updated Eurocode 8; 3) site period (T0) determined from microtremor site amplification spectra; and 4) a hybrid site classification based on T0 and the average Vs and thickness of soil. 810 Vs30 and 2,200 T0 values are determined to evaluate sub-regional differences in these important seismic site parameters in Greater Vancouver. We find that the seismic microzonation of Greater Vancouver depends on the chosen seismic site parameter (Vs30, T0, or a combination of parameters) and that classification schemes with greater class divisions are beneficial to communicating the great variability in seismic site conditions in Greater Vancouver. We recommend that either one hybrid classification map or two classification maps of Vs30 and T0 together are required for effective communication of the seismic microzonation of Greater Vancouver.

Active and passive seismic methods for site characterization in Nuweiba, Gulf of Aqaba, Egypt

Nuweiba is located on the western coast of the Gulf of Aqaba (GoA), which represents the southern part of the Gulf of Aqaba - Dead Sea transform fault (GoA-DST). The GoA is characterized by high seismic activity and is the source of the November 22, 1995, Nuweiba earthquake, with a moment magnitude of Mw 7.3. This seismic unrest caused extensive damage in the city of Nuweiba due to the strong shaking caused by the earthquake. In addition, soil amplification triggered by the thick soft-sediments of the Wadi Watir delta beneath the city amplified the destructive power of the event. Therefore, an assessment of the effect of the Wadi Watir sediments on the ground motion at Nuweiba is very important for future construction, seismic hazard assessment, and seismic risk mitigation. Accordingly, the goal of the current study is to define the amplification characteristics of the Wadi Watir deposits using microtremor and surface wave data sets. The horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio (HVSR) technique is applied to the microtremor data and Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) is applied to the surface wave data. The data are processed to obtain the distribution of the fundamental resonance frequency (F0), the depth of the geophysical bedrock using joint inversion of the Rayleigh wave dispersion curve and ellipticity peak, the shear wave velocity structure, the time-averaged shear-wave velocity in the topmost 30 m (Vs30), and the shear wave transfer function. The results of the HVSR show that F0 in the northern part of the city is 4.2–5.2 Hz and 0.5–0.8 Hz in the middle of the city. Bedrock depth is found to be in the range of 27 and 199 m. The one-dimensional velocity structure obtained from the MASW measurements has resolved two sedimentary layers within the upper 15 m. The Vs30 ranges between 207 and 556 m/s, according to the Vs30 the soil in the study area is categorized into soil classes B and C according to Eurocode 8. The obtained shear wave transfer functions show that the highest amplification factors are observed in the middle part of the study area.