Tile Adhesives Research Articles

Waste From Alwar Quartzite (A Global Heritage Stone From Rajasthan - India) As Secondary Raw Materials for Cementitious Tile Adhesives

Waste deriving from quarrying operations of natural stone material retains almost all the mineralogical and compositional characteristics of the original material, for such reason this research aimed to test prototypes cementitious tile adhesives made up recycling the Alwar Quartzite waste, used as fine and ultra-fine aggregate. Particle size distribution analysis, along with X-ray diffractometry, X-ray fluorescence and Scanning Electron Microscopy were carried out to characterize the waste. Experimental research involved the mix-designing of three dough formulations (a regular one [N], a latex added [L] and a fast-setting [R]) tested by using different types of tiles: (i) polished metal plates, (ii) ceramic tiles and (iii) rough natural stone slabs. Fresh prepared doughs were firstly tested for thixotropy achieving high values (ranging 82–93%) and cured for normative requested time after being stuck on a concrete support as reported in European UNI standard regulations. After respective curing time, adhesives technical performances were evaluated by the Pull-Off test obtaining results for Class 1 (N and R) and Class 2 (L) adhesives with high initial tensile adhesive strength. Experimental results carried out in this research proved the possibility to use huge amounts of waste coming from Indian stone industry in cementitious tile adhesives sector without compromising technical performances, proposing itself as an alternative method to landfill disposal for this waste.

Effect of Adding Redispersible Polymer Powder to Cementitious Tile Adhesive: A Literature Review

Effect of Adding Redispersible Polymer Powder to Cementitious Tile Adhesive: A Literature Review

Multiscale Models to Evaluate the Impact of Chemical Compositions and Test Conditions on the Mechanical Properties of Cement Mortar for Tile Adhesive Applications.

This study aims to develop systematic multiscale models to accurately predict the compressive strength of cement mortar for tile adhesive applications, specifically tailored for applications in the construction industry. Drawing on data from 200 cement mortar tests conducted in previous studies, various factors such as cement/water ratios, curing times, cement/sand ratios, and chemical compositions were analyzed through static modeling techniques. The model selection involved utilizing various approaches, including linear regression, pure quadratic, interaction, M5P tree, and artificial neural network models to identify the most influential parameters affecting mortar strength. The analysis considered the water/cement ratio, testing ages, cement/sand ratio, and chemical compositions, such as silicon dioxide, calcium dioxide, iron (III) oxide, aluminum oxide, and the pH value. Evaluation metrics, such as the determination coefficient, mean absolute error, root-mean-square error, objective function, scatter index, and a-20 index, were employed to ensure the accuracy of the compressive strength estimates. Additionally, empirical equations were utilized to predict flexural and tensile strengths based on the compressive strength of the cement mortar for tile adhesive applications.

Characterization and economization of cementitious tile bond adhesives using machine learning technique

Cementitious Tile Adhesives (CTAs) play a key role in ensuring the elegant outlook of buildings by improving the serviceability of various tile applications, hence making them an integral part of the dry-mix mortar industry with a significant market share globally. However, CTAs require special raw material for their production, making them a less economical option for sustainable construction applications. Hence, the current research work undertook an effort to explore the potential of different type of fine materials to produce CTAs to obtain a cheap value-added product. A total of 36 mixture proportions were prepared with six different sources of fine aggregates (i.e., silica sand, quartz sand, dune sand, river sand 1, river sand 2, and river sand 3), with six varying binder-to-fine aggregates ratios, and their mechanical strength parameters were evaluated. Further microstructure analysis was performed for fine aggregates, and best and worst performing mixture proportions to gain a deep understanding about their mechanical performance. The results revealed that the mixture proportions utilizing silica sand outperformed all other formulations in terms of compressive strength, and tensile strength with a value of 25.28 MPa, and 1.35 MPa, respectively, while dune sand performed the best in terms of shear strength 1.92 MPa with cement content of 40 % at 28 days. Moreover, microstructural investigation also showed the better microstructural performance of silica sand as compared to that of all other sources of sand. To increase the applicability of the undertaken research project, an Artificial Intelligence (AI) based neural network model, along with predictive equations, was developed for the prediction of compressive strength (R2 = 0.9831), shear strength (R2 = 0.9808), and tensile strength (R2 = 0.9862). Hence, it can be concluded that the current research work provides a foundation for an effective product development process to produce tile bond adhesives using different type of raw materials available leading to economical and sustainable manufacturing of cementitious adhesives.

Dimensional changes of adhesive mortars under tile

AbstractHigh shrinkage of tile adhesive is believed to be a technological flaw, leading to the risk of faulty tile fixing. As in real‐life conditions, there is a very limited possibility of mortar movement under tile, the shrinkage/expansion‐induced stress could be created, which needs to be absorbed by the mortar. The significance of the problem increases with the tile size. On contrary, the length changes of such materials are usually measured on the prisms which reflects neither the application thickness nor the real‐life curing conditions of the mortar.In this paper, we are aiming to measure tile adhesives' length change potential in simulated real‐life conditions. The test set‐up involves a Thin‐Layer‐Shrinkage‐Measuring‐System allowing for the examination of flat rectangular samples of 350x350 mm in size and several millimeters of thickness. Dimensional changes were measured in situ by the laser sensors. Additionally, the weight changes were monitored over the whole measurement. The obtained results were juxtaposed with the shrinkage measured on the prisms.The paper provides valuable insights into the dimensional changes of tile adhesives in real‐life applications. Obtained results challenge the conventional measurements done on prisms stored in ambient conditions.

Assessment of Cementitious Ceramic Tile Adhesives in the Light of Repeatability and Reproducibility of the Tensile Adhesion Strength Measurements.

The paper presents the results of tensile adhesion strength measurements of ceramic tile adhesive (CTA) stored in various conditions performed by ten operators in one laboratory using the same equipment and auxiliary materials. The obtained results allowed the authors to estimate the repeatability and reproducibility of the tensile adhesion strength measurement method using the methodology following ISO 5725-2:1994+AC1:2002. Standard deviations of repeatability ranging from 0.09 to 0.15 for the general means value in the range of 0.89-1.76 MPa and standard deviations of reproducibility ranging from 0.14 to 0.21 for the same general means content indicate that the accuracy of tensile adhesion strength measurement method is not high enough. From the group of ten operators, five perform tensile adhesion strength measurements daily, the remaining five perform other measures, and the results obtained by professionals and non-professionals showed no significant differences. In light of the obtained results, compliance assessment with this method with the criteria set out in the harmonized standard EN 12004:2007+A1:2012 carried out by different operators may be divergent, and there is a significant risk of incorrect assessments. This risk is additionally increasing in the case of the evaluation conducted by market surveillance authorities, which use the simple acceptance rule that does not consider measurement variability.

Sustainability Assessment of Cementitious Ceramic Tile Adhesives

This article presents the results of analyzing environmental impact indicators of thirteen ceramic tile adhesives (CTAs). The analyzed data came from ten third-party-verified Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) created in 2016–2022. The paper examines seven environmental impact indicators for modules A1–A3 (cradle-to-gate). Significant differences were observed between the values of environmental indicators, which, in the case of Global Warming Potential (GWP), differed by almost 270% in the most extreme case. For the depletion of abiotic resources (elements) (ADPe), the values of products differed by nearly fourteen thousand times. Results are discussed from the perspective of the CTAs’ manufacturer assessing the product. The analysis focused on issues such as the historical dimension of data, which is the basis for Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), the need for their constant updating, and the subject of uncertainty—usually wholly omitted in the considerations on the environmental impact of construction products. The results of the analysis were also evaluated in terms of the planned introduction of the new 3+ assessment system in connection with the future amendment of the Construction Products Regulation (CPR). The results of the CTAs’ analysis of environmental indicators showed that, despite the EPDs functioning for a decade, the obligatory assessment of construction products in terms of sustainability using the 3+ system did not create the conditions for its proper occurrence. This analysis showed that, without obtaining reliable data on the environmental impact of CTAs, correct AVCP is not possible, and the consumer is not able to make proper choices.

Influence of the Concrete Block on the Tile Adhesive Strength Measured According to EN 12004

Ceramic tile adhesives (CTA) are playing a dominant role for the business of dry-mix producers. Their quality is classified according to EN 12004. In addition, this standard describes the procedure of a CTA’s performance evaluation. Therefore, a defined ceramic tile, a concrete substrate, and the actual tile adhesive is required. In our study, we investigated the influence of different concrete slabs on the results of two tile adhesives. In two cases, the influence of an additional thermal storage of the concrete slabs was evaluated. The tests were strictly performed according to EN 12004-2:2017. The highest variation for the same tile adhesive was found for the adhesion after heat storage measured on different concrete substrates. With a higher polymer content the influence tended to level out. Additionally, a significant deviation was observed for the adhesion strength after water storage, even causing a lower CTA classification on one substrate. The results of our investigation show that the quality of concrete slabs and their storage conditions should be seriously considered in comparing the performance of tile adhesive according to EN 12004.

The risk of a different assessment of the performance of cementitious ceramic tile adhesives in the light of the results of interlaboratory comparisons

The article presents the current state of knowledge on the measurement of the adhesion of cementitious ceramic tile adhesives [CTAs] using the pull-off technique. The author discusses the results of the systematic literature review for the keywords of this article with particular attention to the interlaboratory comparisons [ILCs]. The cementitious CTAs adhesion measurements, particularly the results obtained in the ILCs, became the basis for analyzing the relationship between the participants of the conformity assessment of construction products. The analysis considers the links between science and industry and their environment resulting from formal and legal conditions related to the evaluation of construction products. Based on the study, the author proposes a mind map showing the relationships between potential participants in the CTAs compliance assessment process, with particular emphasis on ILCs. It indicates that using different criteria for evaluating the results of cementitious CTAs adhesion measurement by science and industry is not conducive to developing mutual relations between the two worlds.

Construction Products between Testing Laboratory and Market Surveillance: Case study of Cementitious Ceramic Tile Adhesives.

This article presents the results of the interlaboratory comparison (ILC) study of the following four characteristics of ceramic tile adhesives (CTAs): initial tensile adhesion strength, tensile adhesion strength after heat ageing, tensile adhesion strength after immersion in water, and tensile adhesion strength after freeze–thaw cycles. The results showed that the objective of the ILC was achieved—the z-score analysis carried out following ISO 13528 allowed for classifying all results obtained by 23 laboratories out of 27 as satisfactory. The results of the remaining four laboratories were rated worse. Despite the achieved goal, the ILC notes high heterogeneity of the results in terms of failure patterns, as well as significant differences between the lowest and the highest values of tensile adhesion strength for various measurement conditions. The results of the ILC were discussed in terms of the possibility of including them in the risk analysis conducted by the manufacturer. The results of the ILC are also valuable information for market surveillance authorities, who, in the authors’ opinion, should be more cautious about results on samples taken from the market. The ILC results for CTAs are also a valuable recommendation for a possible revision of EN 12004.

Improved Cementitious Tile Adhesives’ Workability and Mechanical Performance with the Use of Recycled Materials

The impact that construction has on sustainability as a relevant consumer of materials is well known, especially with regard to cement, which contributes to high CO2 emissions. It is well known that in tile adhesives, cement add positive technical contributes, supporting tensile adhesion, especially after water immersion and freeze–thaw cycles. On the other hand, it is also known that that it is possible to replace Portland cement with alternative sources, such as blast furnace slag, fly and bottom ashes, or other pozzolanic materials. Even so, other materials can be also used to contribute to additional performance. This work intends to prove that using recycled materials or by-products is not just a potential way to replace existing materials, improving environmental sustainability, but also contributes additional value to mortars, such as cement-based tile adhesives. Different recycled waste materials are introduced to a cement-based tile adhesive and the evaluation of properties according to EN 12004 is conducted. The results show how the introduction of recycled rubber can contribute to improve the workability of a tile adhesive, acting as a lightweight aggregate. Moreover, it can contribute to reducing the dynamic elasticity modulus; thus, it has a potential contribution to reduce global tensions in tiling systems, and the adhesion results are maintained by the introduction of slag, another recycled material. The weight reduction reduces mortar consumption, one of the main targets to support indicated strategy and justify a more sustainable performance. The results indicate that the introduction of rubber and slag provide good technical and mechanical performance for the mortars, as well as excellent workability.

Standards and Assessment of Construction Products: Case Study of Ceramic Tile Adhesives

This work attempts to draw attention to the importance of a multidimensional approach when creating standard requirements in the assessment of construction products with the example of ceramic tile adhesives (CTAs). CTAs are an essential group of building materials today, the continuous development of which has been noted since the 1960s. However, until 2001, i.e., the year when EN 12004 was published, there were no precise requirements for CTAs at the European level, which often made it difficult or, in extreme cases, even impossible to assess the product objectively. Under the provisions of EN 12004, for twenty years, the basis for the assessment and verification of constancy of performance (AVCP) of CTAs has been adhesion determined by tensile strength. The paper discusses the test methods, paying attention to their imperfections, including the impact of the materials used in measurements, i.e., concrete slab, ceramic tile, and water quality. The results of the multi-annual interlaboratory tests indicate that an essential factor that must be considered in the process of AVCP is test measurement uncertainty. Additionally, it should be remembered that uncertainty also occurs at other assessment levels. It also seems that the simple acceptance rule that does not consider the variability resulting from the measurement uncertainty is inadequate when assessing CTAs.

Incorporation of Clay into Natural Rubber (Hevea) for the Production of Tile Adhesive

Natural rubber latex is the white liquid in the form of the colloidal dispersion of rubber globules suspended in the aqueous liquid. Produced in large quantities in Ivory Coast, the local transformation of natural latex has so far remained insignificant, although some attempts have been made to use it in the manufacture of flexible facade briquettes for rounded walls. Thus, this study aims to incorporate clay as a filler in natural latex for use as an adhesive for tile installation. To do this, different proportions of clay paste were added to the natural latex and the resulting mixtures were used to make the sample and tile adhesive. From the analysis of the results obtained, it appears that the samples with a clay paste density of 0.8 and 1 absorb less water and shows good pull-out strength. The mixtures of 30% and 35% latex and 0.8 and 1 clay paste density respectively have pullout stresses greater than 1 N/mm2. According to NF EN 1348, these adhesives can therefore be used as tile adhesive.

Assessment of the possibility of using the measurement of open time to assess and verify the constancy of performance of cementitious ceramic tile adhesives

The study analyzed the results of open time measurements of ceramic tile adhesives after not less than 30 minutes, obtained by 27 laboratories participating in the interlaboratory comparison program. The obtained results were statistically analyzed following the requirements of ISO 13528 and assessed under the z-score analysis criteria contained in the EN ISO/IEC 17043. 22 out of 24 laboratories that sent the results of the open time measurement confirmed their competencies, obtaining a “satisfactory” result following the evaluation criteria. The result obtained by one laboratory was classified as “questionable”, and another received the result as “unsatisfactory”. From the perspective of laboratories participating in interlaboratory comparisons, the obtained results should be assessed as satisfactory, and thus the laboratories confirm their competence. However, a wide scatter of the results of the open time measurement should be noted – 22 laboratories, the results of which were classified as “satisfactory”, obtained results from 0.1 N/mm2 to 1.0 N/mm2. Such a wide scatter of the results of open time measurements determined by the adhesion strength indicates that this method has too little accuracy, and it should not be used in the assessment and verification of constancy of performance of ceramic tile adhesives.

State of water in calcium sulfoaluminate cement paste modified by hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose ether

To obtain satisfying water retention and improved viscosity, cellulose ether (CE) has been widely used in fields such as tile adhesives, repair mortars and self-levelling mortars. But the impacts of CE on the hydration and microstructure of calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements, especially on the hydration and water evolution are still missing some basic insights. This paper mainly focusses on the influence of two hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose ether (HEMC) on the water evolution and hydration properties of commercial CSA cements with variable composition. The properties at fresh state such as setting times, air void content and water retention were recorded, while the interaction between HEMC and CSA cements was investigated by the combination of calorimetry, 1H NMR and DSC-TG. Results indicate that regardless of the composition of CSA cements, HEMC greatly increases the air void content and water retention. Setting time and hydration heat evolution within 1 d as well as the formation of cement hydrates (ettringite, monosulfate and alumina gel) are only slightly or unaffected by the addition of HEMC. As shown in the T2 distribution of 1H NMR pattern, it is interesting to notice that the addition of HEMC leads to the appearance of a new peak around 100 ms–1000 ms within 1 h and it disappears after 150 min. This finding is assigned to the evolution of a special water state in cement pastes containing HEMC. Additionally, variations in the polymer structure of HEMC have comparatively weaker impact than CSA cement type on the properties of prepared cementitious materials.

Ceramic Tile Adhesives from the Producer’s Perspective: A Literature Review

Ceramic tiles and ceramic tile adhesives (CTA) are two impressive materials that have changed construction history. Ceramic tiles could not provide their beauty and durability for buildings when used as a covering both for the inside and exterior finishing without CTA. Nowadays, they are complex multi-component systems. Among the various CTAs, cementitious products are the most commonly used. This article presents an extensive review of the literature, showing how they are perceived in the scientific literature today. In this paper, an attempt is made to review individual adhesives’ ingredients’ effects on their properties, with particular reference to redispersible polymer powders and methylcellulose ethers. The article presents the basics of the CTAs, assessing and verifying the constancy of their performance in force in European Union countries. Furthermore, it gives a critical review of CTA’s normalized measurement methodologies. The study also draws attention to the need to consider measurement uncertainty in decision-making and conformity assessment, supported by an analysis of the results of multi-annual inter-laboratory studies and market surveillance tests. Future research suggestions are also made based on the review, mainly from the adhesive manufacturer’s perspective.

Experimental Investigation of Adhesion Failure between Waterproof Coatings and Terrace Tiles under Usage Loads

This paper analyses the mechanism of the loss of functional properties of water-impermeable products used under ceramic tiles bonded with adhesives. Recorded damages were caused by selected ageing factors and were measured by the loss of adhesion of individual layers of the set. The analyzed phenomenon is found mainly on terraces and balconies located in a mid-European transitional climate, i.e., exposed to temperatures passing through 0 °C for three seasons a year. The tests reflected the action of three main functional factors, i.e., temperatures, water and freeze/thaw cycles. Tested waterproof coatings were grouped into three types, i.e., dispersion, cementitious and reaction resin-based products. Research kits consisted of liquid-applied water-impermeable products laid on a concrete substrate, adhesives and tiles. Comparing the effects of the action of the above-mentioned ageing factors revealed that water has the greatest impact on the reduction of the tensile adhesion strength of such sets. The adhesion of waterproof coatings to the concrete substrate showed higher values than the adhesion between the waterproof coating and the tile adhesive layers, regardless of the coating material. Both for samples not exposed to ageing factors, and for those exposed to such impacts, failure usually occurred in the adhesive layer or between the tile adhesive and the waterproof coating, without damaging the waterproof layer. The loss of adhesion of finishing layers to the substrate was not accompanied by a loss of tightness of the waterproof coating. The impact of negative water ageing was particularly destructive on the adhesion of cement-based tile adhesives to waterproof coatings made of polymer with a water dispersion of absorbability above 7% (V/V). There was no correlation among the results of adhesion of the finishing layers to the waterproofing layer after the action of the three ageing factors, i.e., water contact, elevated temperature and freeze/thaw cycles.

Business Roundup

BUSINESS Business Roundup ShareShare onFacebookTwitterWechatLinked InRedditEmail C&EN, 2020, 98 (1), p 13January 6, 2020Cite this:C&EN 98, 1, 13AbstractEvonik Industries says it will build a world-scale plant to produce rhamnolipids, a class of biosurfactants made by fermenting lipids. Unilever is already using the surfactants in its Quix brand of dishwashing detergent liquid, sold in Chile. Arkema’s Bostik unit has acquired LIP Bygningsartikler, a Danish maker of tile adhesives and waterproofing systems with annual sales of about $34 million. The deal boosts the adhesive maker’s presence in the Nordic countries. Ecolab is merging its upstream energy business—which includes its oil field chemicals business—with the oil and gas equipment maker Apergy. The combined company will have about $3.5 billion in annual revenues. BASF Venture Capital has invested an undisclosed sum in Israel-based start-up Equinom, a developer of computerized seed-breeding technology. The tools are used to cross-breed plants to introduce desirable traits, such as protein or oil content, and functionality, like shatter resistance in sesame-seed pods. Gevo has signed an agreementView: PDF | Full Text HTML

Research on the Properties of High-strength Gypsum Based Tile Adhesive in Interior Decoration

In this paper, a new early strength tile adhesive is prepared by using α- high strength gypsum and its properties are discussed. The research methods refer to relevant Chinese standards. The results show that the tensile bond strength of the adhesive can reach 0.6 MPa in one day and 1.5 MPa in 7 days, which is close to 80% of 28-day strength. It is indicating that the adhesive has high bond strength, rapid strength development, and high dimensional stability. It effectively solves the problems that the traditional cement-based tile adhesive is prone to hollowing, falling off, and cracking. Additionally, no interface treatment is required during the using process of this gypsum-based adhesive.

The effect of fly ash and granulated blast furnace slag on slip and tensile adhesion strength of tile adhesives mortars

In the formulations of adhesive mortars for tiles almost exclusively CEM I Portland cements are used. Practically no CEM II - CEM V cements with additives are used, although they are often produced with strength classes 32.5 R and some even 42.5R. Relationship between strengths of tile adhesives in which cement was partially replaced with fly ash and granulated blast furnace slag was studied. A fly ash was used in three different replacement levels from 5% to 25% by weight of either cement. The tensile adhesion were determined at 28 and 90 days after various conditioning conditions of the samples. The influence on the flexibility of mortars was also assessed. In small substitution levels, fly ash replacement increased the tensile adhesion strength. The results indicate that the optimal amount of fly ash and granulated blast furnace slag additive replacing a given amount of cement allows to obtain adhesive mortars for tiles with high functional parameters.