Tibetan Version Research Articles

Current status and continuing medical education need for general practitioners in Tibet, China: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundThe Tibetan area is one of China’s minority regions with a shortage of general practice personnel, which requires further training and staffing. This research helps to understand the current condition and demand for general practitioner (GP) training in Tibetan areas and to provide a reference for promoting GP education and training.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional survey using stratified sampling targeting 854 GPs in seven cities within the Tibetan Autonomous Region, utilizing an online questionnaire. Achieving a high response rate of 95.1%, 812 GPs provided invaluable insights. Our meticulously developed self-designed questionnaire, available in both Chinese and Tibetan versions, aimed to capture a wide array of data encompassing basic demographics, clinical skills, and specific training needs of GPs in the Tibetan areas. Prior to deployment, the questionnaire underwent rigorous development and refinement processes, including expert consultation and pilot testing, to ensure its content validity and reliability. In our analysis, we employed descriptive statistics to present the characteristics and current training needs of GPs in the Tibetan areas. Additionally, chi-square tests were utilized to examine discrepancies in training needs across various demographic groups, such as age, job positions, and educational backgrounds of the participating GPs.ResultsThe study was completed by 812 (812/854, 95.1%) GPs, of whom 62.4% (507/812) were female. The top three training needs were hypertension (81.4%, 661/812), pregnancy management (80.7%, 655/812), and treatment of related patient conditions and events (80.5%, 654/812). Further research shows that the training required by GPs of different ages in “puncturing, catheterization, and indwelling gastric tube use” (64.6% vs. 54.8%, p = 9.5 × 10− 6) varies statistically. GPs in various positions have different training needs in “community-based chronic disease prevention and management” (76.6% vs. 63.9%, p = 0.009). The training needs of GPs with different educational backgrounds in “debridement, suturing, and fracture fixation” (65.6% vs. 73.2%, p = 0.027) were also statistically significant.ConclusionsThis study suggests the need for targeted continuing medical education activities and for updating training topics and content. Course developers must consider the needs of GPs, as well as the age, job positions, and educational backgrounds of GPs practicing in the Tibetan Plateau region.Trial registrationNot applicable.

Writing oral varieties with the Tibetan script. A case study on Cone Tibetan

The article primarily discusses the practice of writing oral varieties with Tibetan script, focusing on Bragkhoglung Tibetan, spoken Cone County of Gansu Province. It explores issues on how we record and output oral literature resource in a given minoritised language community. Examining writing a folktale of Bragkhoglung Tibetan with Tibetan script, we find that the Bragkhoglung Tibetan version can help native speakers reproduce the narration in their mother tongue to a greater extent and recollect the manner of storytelling.

Об этике буддиста-мирянина (на материале ойратского перевода «Сутры о плоде»)

The article examines the manuscript Calm D 16 in Oirat «clear letter» «Ači üreyin sudur» («Cause and Effect Sūtra») from the manuscript collection of the Library of the Oriental Faculty of St. Petersburg State University. This sutra refers to Buddhist apocryphal (non-canonical) writings, which in some traditions of Tibetan literature were considered to be the untrue «word of the Buddha», and therefore were not always included in the Buddhist canon. Despite the fact that it was translated from Chinese, in Tibetan and Mongolian translations it entered the Kagyur (Ganjur), and was obviously used by Buddhist priests for didactic purposes to educate the lay community. According to the content, the sutra is a conversation between the Buddha and the disciple Ananda, which explains the consequences of good and evil deeds, which are built into a certain system of ethical norms for a lay Buddhist. Positive actions include cultivating compassion, practicing the six paramitas, making offerings to Buddhist temples, stupas, the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha), as well as to the Teacher and parents, reading aloud, rewriting, contributing to rewriting and reflecting on the Mahayana sutras. Negative actions in the sutra are actions that lead to suffering of living beings: inflicting pain, intimidation, hunting, theft, murder, etc., showing disrespect towards the Three Jewels, the Teacher, the sacred texts of the sutras, the monastic sangha. A comparison of the Oirat translation with the Tibetan and Mongolian canonical versions as part of the Kagyur (Ganjur) shows that the Oirat text is based on either another Tibetan version or an independent revision different from the canonical Mongolian text.

The Preface to the <i>Shiwang Jing</i>: An Early Legend of Revival

The main text of the Tangut version of the Scripture on the Ten Kings was based on the Tibetan version, but its preface, translated from Chinese, contains a folk legend about a child who returns alive from Hell after Yama admires his respect for deities and sages. A similar legend is recorded in Chinese Buddhist canon no earlier than the Ming Dynasty, therefore the Tangut preface proves to be the earliest sample of the same work. With the help of Chinese texts, it may be possible to decipher the Tangut version of the cursive handwritten preface in inv. №819 kept at the IOM, RAS and the version in a xylograph that recently appeared on the Chinese relic market.

Buddha and nature as depicted in Aśvaghoṣa’s buddhacarita

This paper emphasizes the deep interdependence of nature and the Buddha as depicted in Buddhacarita of Aśvaghoṣa Bodhisattva. The text contends that the Buddha was inextricably linked with the natural world throughout his life. Nature is the Buddha's ally in the path to enlightenment, cultivating a deep regard for nature's extraordinary beauty and diversity. The accounts of the Buddha's life in Buddhacarita are difficult to divide between stories, facts, and myths. Many plants, flowers, animals, and trees are linked to Buddha's life story. Animals affected the Buddha's yearning for Nibbāna; observing the suffering of both mankind and animals motivated him to seek enlightenment. Furthermore, the Buddha's relationship with natural events is portrayed as one of the Buddha's vast and amazing traits. This paper employs the literary analysis method on three well-known English translations. The first is The Buddhacarita, or Acts of the Buddha, which E.H. Johnson translated from Sanskrit and augmented with the Tibetan version. The second is E.B. Cowell's translation from Sanskrit titled The Buddhacarita of Aśvaghoṣa. The last is Samuel Beal's translation from Chinese of The Fo-Sho-Hing-Tsan-King. According to the findings, Buddha's life is a remarkable example of the close relationship between humans and nature. It serves as a reminder that human and nonhuman ecosystems are intrinsically linked and intertwined.

Reliability and validity of the Tibetan version of the International Prostate Symptom Score.

To validate the Tibetan version of the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS-Tib) in patients with and without urinary symptoms in a Tibetan population. The validity and reliability of IPSS-Tib were studied in 85 patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and 62 controls without lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). Reliability was evaluated using the test-retest method and internal consistency using Cronbach's α, and the construct validity was assessed by the correlation between IPSS-Tib scores and quality of life questions (QoL-Tib). The Cronbach's α coefficient of the IPSS-Tib was 0.80 and of a single IPSS scoring item ranged from 0.77 to 0.86. The IPSS-Tib test-retest reliability was evaluated by the intraclass correlation coefficient, and its average value was 0.79 (P < 0.001). The mean (SEM, 95% CI) area under the ROC curve for the IPSS-Tib was 0.91 (0.87-0.96). The IPSS-Tib had a high correlation with the QoL-Tib (Spearman's rank correlation coefficient 0.84, P < 0.01). The mean IPSS score before transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) was 21.9 (6.8), and dropped to 6.38 (1.54) after TURP (P < 0.001), and the average difference was 15.52 (6.23), related to the drop from 4.5 (0.9) to 1.46 (0.48) in the QoL (P < 0.001). The IPSS-Tib has good reliability and validity in the diagnosis and symptom severity assessment of patients with BPH in Tibetan areas. It is an ideal assessment tool that can be used in Tibetan-speaking areas for patients with BPH and as a method for evaluating postoperative curative effect assessment of patients with BPH.

Adapting the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives (MAIN) to Tibetan

This paper introduces the Tibetan version of the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives (MAIN). We describe the main typological properties of the Tibetan language, including word order, case markers, and evidentiality. Finally, the motivation for adaptation, the process of adaptation, and the challenges encountered are discussed.

The Chinese Textual Tradition of the Story of The King and His Dreams: An Analytical Investigation of Two Unstudied Recensions of the Story

Abstract This article provides the first translation into a European language of a barely-studied Chinese version (i.e., Yijing’s version) of a story found in Kalīla wa-Dimna known as “The King and His Dreams.” The article then compares the story with three versions from the Arabic textual tradition. Moreover, discussing the structure and content of this story, yet another unstudied Chinese version (i.e., Kinkara’s version) of the story is introduced. Both Chinese texts belong to the Chinese Buddhist canon (Taishō Tripiṭaka). Our study shows that of the two Chinese texts, Kinkara’s version bears less similarity to the three Arabic versions in terms of structure and content. Yijing’s text and the three Arabic versions are very close, but display in a number of scenes discrepancies in the general plot as well as in details, thereby creating different morals for the story in the two traditions. While the Arabic versions can be regarded as belonging to political advice literature, Yijing’s version remains a story with a religious moral. The variances between Yijing’s text and the three Arabic texts could partly be ascribed to possible adjustment of the original Sanskrit text of the story by the compiler-author of the Middle Persian Kalīla wa-Dimna in order to make the story adaptable to the agenda and the context of his book. Yijing’s text shows distinct similarities to the Tibetan version of the story.

Tsongkha History and Historiography

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; Almost no trace of the eleventh-century Tibetan kingdom of Tsongkha remains in extant Tibetan materials; to write its history, scholars have therefore had to rely almost exclusively on Chinese sources written during the Song dynasty. This paper identifies a hitherto undiscovered colophon preserved in the Tibetan Bud- dhist canon as belonging to a translation that was produced through the patronage of the Tsongkha royal court in 1068 or 1080. This colophon provides the Tibetan versions of the names of the Tsongkha king Dongzhan, the queen Xinmu, and their capital/palace. Not only does this new source offer us a valuable local insight into this mysterious Tibetan kingdom, it also raises questions concerning the perception of Tsongkha by Song Chinese literati and Central Tibetan clerics during and after the eleventh century. The paper proffers a description and interpretation of the ambivalent status held by this border region among its two neighboring regions.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

History of the *Kāśyapaparivarta in Chinese Translations and Its Connection with the Mahāratnakūṭa (Da Baoji jing 大寶積經) Collection

&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; The *Kāśyapaparivarta, an early Mahāyāna sūtra, has a complex history. Sanskrit and Tibetan versions, and some of its Chinese translations, have been available to scholars for almost a century, thanks to Staël-Holstein’s 1926 editio princeps. Yet no comprehensive survey of available sources, or critical appraisal of their antecedants, has been published, and most importantly, essential Chinese materials have long been overlooked. The present contribution focuses most centrally on the Chinese translations of the scripture. In addition, the relation of the sūtra to the Mahāratnakūṭa collection of forty-nine texts and the possible Indic origins of the latter are explored.&#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

«Сутра о восьми светоносных неба и земли» как источник по пантеону Тибета

Introduction. A Tibetan version of the apocryphal Sūtra of Eight Luminous of Heaven and Earth to have been included in Gzungs-′dus and Mdo-mangs collections of minor non-canonical texts is a ritual text containing lists of various supernatural beings of Tibetan religious system. Some of these cannot be found in Chinese or Indian traditions and obviously have Tibetan pre-Buddhist roots. This version of the Sūtra serves to neutralize supernatural beings mentioned in the text via reciting their names. It is also represented by an Oirat translation made by Jaya Paṇḍita Nam-mkha′ rgya-mtsho (1599–1662). Goals. The article aims to analyze lists of supernatural beings which supposedly have Tibetan origin and differ in Tibetan and Oirat versions. Two texts — the Tibetan version from Gzungs-′dus collection and the Oirat translation by Jaya Paṇḍita Nam-mkha′ rgya-mtsho — are used as main sources. A gter-ma text of incense (Tib. bsang) offering dedicated to this Sūtra and Chapter 31 of Vaidurya-dkar po containing materials on earth lords (Tib. sa-bdag) serve as complementary sources for comparative analysis. Results. The two abovementioned versions have differences in lists of nāgas, deities and earth lords belonging to pre-Buddhist religious system. It is proposed that Jaya Paṇḍita had used some other Tibetan text of the Sūtra (now extant) which differed from the version included in Gzungs-′dus. Correspondences between some names in the Oirat translation and the gter-ma text by Nyang-ral Nyi-ma ′od-zer (Eastern Tibet) make it possible to conclude that the extant Tibetan version used by Jaya Paṇḍita could have also been composed in the same region. All names from the additional list of earth lords’ names found only in the Tibetan version of the Sūtra and missing in Oirat text can be identified through Chapter 31 of Vaidurya-dkar po, therefore the paper proposes this composition authored by sde-srid Sangs-rgyas rgya-mtsho could have also been used by compilers after the mid-to-late 17th century during long editing processes experienced by the Tibetan text of the Sūtra.

Synonyme in der Mahāvyutpatti. Zum Verständnis der mit (ma) ’dom na gebildeten Einträge

At the beginning of the 9th century, official guidelines for translating Indian texts into Tibetan were issued. A Sanskrit-Tibetan dictionary, called Mahāvyutpatti, was also compiled at that time: Its approximately 9,500 entries had a lasting influence on Tibetan lexicography. For many Sanskrit words, the Mahāvyutpatti offers several possible translations (synonyms). This paper deals with entries which characterise synonyms by means of the terms 'dom na and ma 'dom na. The structure and function of these definitions are examined in detail, the text of the critical edition by Ishihama and Fukuda (published in 1989) is corrected if necessary. In fact, these definitions follow a general rule given in the Sgra-sbyor-bam-po-gnyis-pa: Literal translations should only be used if in the context ('dom na) synonyms are given that enable an easy understanding; if not (ma 'dom na), more common but less precise renderings should be chosen from the outset. The Tibetan equivalents marked with 'dom na are very often loan translations: As a rule, they render the traditional etymologies of the underlying Sanskrit words quite exactly. However, they are often difficult to understand, especially in Tibet, outside the Indian context from which they originated. Thus ma 'dom na and 'dom na are tags referring to the usage of the words in question. Except for minor irregularities these prescriptions are confirmed by findings from the 'Dul ba, the Tibetan version of the Vinaya. This shows that the rules in the Mahāvyutpatti are consistent with the older canonical literature. The (ma) 'dom na entries in the Mahāvyutpatti thus provide important clues to the historical development of the vocabulary of classical Tibetan.

Графо-фонетические особенности имени Аюки–хана (на материале калмыцких деловых писем XVII–XVIII вв.)

Introduction. This article discusses the graphemic and phonemic features, as well as the origin of the name of the famous Kalmyk Ayuka Khan (1642–1724). Archival documents, namely, numerous official letters in the Kalmyk language indicate that in the 17th–18th centuries personal names of Sanskrit and Tibetan origin were popular among the Kalmyks of Russia. A large layer of anthroponyms associated with the names of deities, sacred symbols, philosophical concepts, ritual objects, etc. were borrowed by them via Sanskrit and Tibetan written sources, with the spread among them of Buddhist teachings; and most of these items that belong to the spiritual sphere of the people are still in active use. While the anthroponymy of the written Kalmyk language of the period in question has been little discussed, the study of a particular borrowed anthroponym, in my opinion, is of much relevance. This article aims to analyze the name ‘Ayuka’ in terms of its graphemic and phonemic composition, as well as its origin. The study’s database comprises Ayuka Khan’s official letters sent to Peter I, as well as to the officials of the Russian government in the period between 1685 and 1724; the documents are part of the collections of the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (Moscow) and the National Archives of the Republic of Kalmykia (Elista). Conclusions. The study shows that the Khan’s name is of Sanskrit origin; in the documents, it was transliterated using the symbols of the Galik script and was pronounced in the Kalmyk environment in its Tibetan version.

A Preliminary Study of the Dunhuang Tibetan Fragments of the Mūlasarvāstivāda-Ekottarakarmaśataka (I): Tarjanīyakarman

This paper identifies a lost Old Tibetan version of the Mūlasarvāstivāda-Ekottarakarmaśataka (hereafter, EK) as preserved in Dunhuang Tibetan fragments. It firstly gives a brief introduction to the related Tibetan manuscripts Pelliot tibétain 945 and Indian Office Library Tibetan J 596, and then analyses the textual nature of the Old Tibetan version of the EK preserved in these manuscripts by comparing with its cognate Chinese version, i.e., Genbenshuoyiqieyoubu baiyijiemo 根本說一切有部百一羯磨 (T 1453) translated by Yi Jing 義淨 (635–713 CE). Then, it focuses on the passage of the tarjanīyakarman (Tib. bsdigs pa’i las, Chin. 令怖羯磨), one of the ecclesiastical rituals for punishment in the Buddhist Order, as seen in the Old Tibetan version of the EK. It reveals that the tarjanīyakarman passage therein is textually related to, even derived mutatis mutandis from, Pāṇḍulohitakavastu. In sum, this paper introduces for the first time the ‘true’ Tibetan version of the EK long forgotten yet preserved in Dunhuang, and attempts to show its affiliation with the Mūlasarvāstivāda tradition.

Гадание посредством Авалокитешвары

Introduction. The article discusses the Oirat and Tibetan texts of Avalokiteshvara divination. Goals. The paper aims to introduce the Oirat fortune-telling text (which was in use in Western Mongolia) and its Tibetan version into scientific circulation. The divination is instrumental in studying religious practices and beliefs of the Oirats of Western Mongolia. Materials. Materials for the article were obtained from two sources. The Oirat text was borrowed from the collection titled The Light of Clear Script Texts (Mong. Tod Nomin Gerel) which is stored on the website of the Digital Library for International Research. The Tod Nomin Gerel Collection comprises digital copies of various Oirat-language texts written in ‘Clear Script’ and those of Tibetan-language ones. The Tibetan divination text was obtained by the author during language training in Ulaanbaatar in 2012-2013 from Amarbayasgalan Ulzibat, resident of Ulaanbaatar. Methods. The article employs the comparative method and that of contextual analysis. Results. A comparison of the Oirat and Tibetan texts makes it possible to assume that the Tibetan text is a translation from Mongolian/Oirat. This practice was inherent to Mongolian society. Thus, the study is of interest due to an opportunity to get comparative insights into fortune-telling traditions of Tibet and Mongolia, as well as the process of generating such texts and translation practices in traditional society.

Гадание посредством Авалокитешвары

Introduction. The article discusses the Oirat and Tibetan texts of Avalokiteshvara divination. Goals. The paper aims to introduce the Oirat fortune-telling text (which was in use in Western Mongolia) and its Tibetan version into scientific circulation. The divination is instrumental in studying religious practices and beliefs of the Oirats of Western Mongolia. Materials. Materials for the article were obtained from two sources. The Oirat text was borrowed from the collection titled The Light of Clear Script Texts (Mong. Tod Nomin Gerel) which is stored on the website of the Digital Library for International Research. The Tod Nomin Gerel Collection comprises digital copies of various Oirat-language texts written in ‘Clear Script’ and those of Tibetan-language ones. The Tibetan divination text was obtained by the author during language training in Ulaanbaatar in 2012-2013 from Amarbayasgalan Ulzibat, resident of Ulaanbaatar. Methods. The article employs the comparative method and that of contextual analysis. Results. A comparison of the Oirat and Tibetan texts makes it possible to assume that the Tibetan text is a translation from Mongolian/Oirat. This practice was inherent to Mongolian society. Thus, the study is of interest due to an opportunity to get comparative insights into fortune-telling traditions of Tibet and Mongolia, as well as the process of generating such texts and translation practices in traditional society.

О рукописных списках ойратско-калмыцкого «Гесера», хранящихся в архивных собраниях России и Европы, а также их собирании, описании и публикации

The epos “Geser” in the form of oral and written vaults is known over a vast territory — from Tibet and Mongolia to southern Siberia and the Lower Volga. According to the researchers, the Mongolian Geseriad was established among the ancient Mongol-speaking tribes of Kukunor on the basis of the oral Tibetan version of the monument. Geser is not only the hero of the epos, his image is also associated with the mythological, religious, folklore and literary traditions. This article is devoted to the history of publication and storage of the handwritten texts of “Geser” in “clear script” in Russia and Europe, as well as the history of recording and publication of oral versions of the legend.

Модель буддийской космологии в «Сутре о восьми светоносных неба и земли»

The article discusses a Tibetan-Mongolian cosmological model of Buddhist universe presented in the Oirat translation of one of the most popular Buddhist ritual texts — The Sūtra of Eight Luminous of Heaven and Earth. Materials. The sūtra was translated into Oirat by Ven. Zaya Pandita Namkhaijamts at request of Princess Yum Agas in the 1650s, and is referred by scholars as a Buddhist apocrypha of Chinese origin. Nevertheless, in the literary tradition of Mongolic peoples it was always viewed as the authentic Word of the Buddha (buddhavacana). Results. The analysis of the Oirat manuscript of the sūtra shows that the model of Buddhist universe includes several components. The first one of Indian origin is related to the cosmology of classical Buddhism described in Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, including the astronomical conception of twenty-eight nakśatra constellations and nine planets, as well as some classes of beings of the Buddhist universe. The second component contains elements of Chinese astrology, such as the astrological diagram of the golden turtle, which encloses animals of the twelve-year cycle, and eight trigrams representing different elements. The last component belongs to original Tibetan mythology and includes a classification of supernatural beings co-existing with humans between heaven and earth — nāgas (Tib. klu), nyen spirits (Tib. gnyan) and spiritual lords of earth (Tib. sa bdag). Indian influence can also be traced in the classification of nāgas, the latter including eight great nāgas known in classical Buddhism, and five castes of nāgas structurally correlated with traditional Indian society. The detailed classification of the spiritual lords of earth presented in the sūtra was later included in the well-known Tibetan astrological work Vaiḍurya dkar po of Desi Sangye Gyatso. This classification represented in the Oirat translation includes some names which are absent in the Tibetan version of the sūtra (for comparative analysis the work examines a version of the sūtra included in the gZungs ’dus collection). This indicates that Ven. Zaya Pandita Namkhaijamts would also use another Tibetan version of the sūtra when making his Oirat translation.

“The Five Parts of the Dharma Realm”: Preliminary Remarks on the Collection of the &lt;em&gt;sems phyogs&lt;/em&gt; Texts in the Tangut Translation

The paper discusses the recently identified collection of sems sde class texts in Tangut translation. The author provides initial textual analysis of the texts in the composition and offers several suggestions concerning the historical setting of these texts. There is also evidence allowing to suggest that several versions of the “five early translations”, probably based on varying Tibetan versions, were current in the Tangut State. The study revealed a systematic relationship which existed between the compositions united under the sems sde category in the Tangut State. They formed a coherent whole of core texts, commentaries and historical accounts. Finally, several observations concerning possible historical traditions of the Tangut sems sde are provided.

“The Five Parts of the Dharma Realm”: Preliminary Remarks on the Collection of the sems phyogs Texts in the Tangut Translation

The paper discusses the recently identified collection of sems sde class texts in Tangut translation. The author provides initial textual analysis of the texts in the composition and offers several suggestions concerning the historical setting of these texts. There is also evidence allowing to suggest that several versions of the “five early translations”, probably based on varying Tibetan versions, were current in the Tangut State. The study revealed a systematic relationship which existed between the compositions united under the sems sde category in the Tangut State. They formed a coherent whole of core texts, commentaries and historical accounts. Finally, several observations concerning possible historical traditions of the Tangut sems sde are provided.