Ti Dosimeters Research Articles

Assessment of energy and angular dependence of LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters irradiated in the quantity Hp(0.07)

Radiation dosimetry has the purpose of quantifying the dose received by the occupationally exposed individual. The device used in this process is called a dosimeter, the dosimeter can be used in different situations, for example, the dosimeter used to quantify the dose received in the fingers is the ring model dosimeter, for the extremity, which is the focus of this work. In Brazil, we still do not have standards for the calibration of extremity dosimeters, therefore, in this work, the CASEC recommendations were used, adapted for extremity dosimetry. For a dosimeter to be used in its respective routine, it must present results within some pre-established limits in reference standards. For this purpose, energy dependence and angular dependence tests were carried out. To calibrate the LiF:Mg,Ti thermoluminescent dosimeters, a phantom rod was used. The phantom rod has the function of simulating the region of interest, in the case of this work, the fingers. The dosimeters were irradiated in the magnitude Hp(0.07), with the doses and energies recommended by the CASEC standard. The aim of this work is to characterize end dosimeters in the ring model with LiF:Mg,Ti detectors.

Determination of the Absorbed Dose in Water for Small Photon Beams Using Micro-TLDs of LiF:Mg,Ti (Pilot Audit Proposal)

Background: Small-field dosimetry remains an open challenge globally. Thus, it is crucial to consider adequate reference codes of practice for the performance of dosimetry. Furthermore, as part of good clinical practice, the implementation of new codes of practice implies the development of a dosimetry audit program. In this work, a pilot dosimetric audit protocol is established for measuring the absolute dose in water for small fields using micro-TLDs LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters. Methods: The dosimeters were irradiated with a 6 MV X-ray beam in a linear accelerator. The TLDs were calibrated between 0.5 and 3 Gy for different field sizes. For audit, the TLDs were irradiated at 2 Gy for different circular field sizes. The proposed protocol consists of five TLD dosimeters forming a cross with a marked radiochromic film to identify the position of the central dosimeter during irradiation. Only the dosimeter measurement in the center of the field is used. Results: It was found that the percentage difference between the measured dose and the prescribed dose (2 Gy) for irradiation in circular fields is less than 3%. Conclusions: A pilot dosimetric audit was carried out using the proposed protocol over a linear accelerator using small circular collimator photon beams.

Assessment of out-of-field radiation doses for high dose per pulse intraoperative electron beam radiotherapy using TLD-100

PurposeThis research aims to assess the out-of-field surface doses for different combinations of electron energy, applicator size, and distance from the applicator wall of high dose-per-pulse IntraOperative electron Radiation Therapy (IOeRT) using thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs). Materials and methodsThe out-of-field doses for various combinations of IOeRT electron beam energy/applicator size were measured using ionometric dosimetry. The calibrated LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters (TLD-100) were used to make the measurements. TLD results were benchmarked using an Advanced Markus chamber and a polymethyl methacrylate slab phantom. TLDs were read out using a HARSHAW (type 4000) manual TLD reader. ResultsThe TLDs received out-of-field absorbed doses ranging from 0.033 to 0.545 mGy/MU depending on the applicator size, electron energy, and distance from the applicator's outer wall. The mean discrepancies between TLDs and Advanced Markus ion chamber measured data were about 1.82% in the PMMA slab phantom at a depth of maximum dose for each electron energy. ConclusionThe skin surface dose can be significant during IOeRT. The maximum out-of-field doses have occurred at high electron beam energy and closer distances around the applicator wall. TLD can measure the skin's dose level according to its good agreement with the reference Advanced Markus dosimeter. The TLD-100 can be used as a reliable dosimeter for intraoperative radiation dosimetry.

Preliminary Experiences with the Rexon UL-320-FDR: An Automated Thermoluminescent Dosimeter Reader with Removable Contact Heating Planchets and an Infrared Temperature Feedback System.

The Rexon UL-320 FDR is a novel resistive-heating thermoluminescent dosimeter reader with a unique temperature measurement system and an automated dosimeter processing mechanism. The removable contact heating planchets have black-body adhesives on the back for capturing temperature information with infrared sensors. A heating cycle feedback loop ensures accurate, precise, and reproducible heating sequences. Heating rates between 0.8 and 40°C s-1 for up to 1,000 s are possible. Photomultiplier tube sensitivity and drift, dark current counts, and planchet glow were measured experimentally. Additionally, 25 LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters were calibrated to demonstrate reader performance. Sensitivity was optimized at 1,200 V, which produced the highest reference light count to dark current count ratio while extending photomultiplier tube life. Dark current counts measured with typical time-temperature profiles for LiF:Mg,Ti were below 10 counts per channel but increased by up to 2.5% for more extreme heating cycles. Reader sensitivity drifts of up to 10% were observed during extended automated operations with typical time-temperature profiles. Total counts resulting from planchet glow decreased with faster heating rates. Calibrations performed with LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters yielded results comparable to more established reader designs. Spikes were observed in ~3% of the glow curves from planchet dust and oil burning off at elevated temperatures. The use of N2 gas and sensitivity drift corrections are recommended to improve dosimetry performance for the UL-320 FDR reader.

Quantification of Various Factors Influencing Repeatability and Reproducibility of TLD-600 Detector

Various factors affecting the random and systematic error in the repeatability and reproducibility of thermoluminescent 6LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters were investigated. These characteristics were examined by irradiating them with different doses in the range 3.8 µG to 433.94 mGy from a Cs-137 gamma source. Values of the element correction factors (ECFs) were obtained by exposing the chips to a dose of 433.93 mGy five times. This investigation denotes that more correction will be obtained by calculating the error due to non-subtracting zero dose reading from the delivered dose, which decreases the coefficient of variation as a percentage of the mean from range of 2.4%-18.6% to only 0.7%-16.9%. Using the individual sensitivity factor and repeating five calibrations decrease the coefficient of variation as a percentage of the mean to only 0.54% and the values of the Variability Index for System (SVI), Reader (RVI) and Detector (DVI) are 1.46 %, 1.40% and 0.34% respectively. Also, it is clear from the results that the best repeatability and reproducibility are going to be obtained by using the element correction factor associated with each dosimeter rather than carefully selecting the individual dosimeters. Finally, from the results we can note that at low doses the value of relative coefficient of variation becomes very large while at high doses it becomes basically constant and of the order of a few percent.

Evaluation of TL response and intrinsic efficiency of TL dosimeters irradiated using different phantoms in clinical electron beam dosimetry

The TL response of LiF:Mg,Ti microdosimeters and CaSO4:Dy dosimeters were studied for 12 MeV electron beams using PMMA, liquid water and solid water (SW) phantoms. The different phantom materials affect the electron spectrum incident on the detector and it can alter the response of dosimeters to different radiation types, so this fact should be considered in clinical dosimetry. The dosimeters were irradiated with doses ranging from 0.1 up to 5 Gy using a Varian Clinac 2100C linear accelerator of Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein – HIAE using a 10 × 10 cm2 field size and 100 cm source-phantom surface distance, with the dosimeters positioned at the depth of maximum dose. The TL readings were carried out 24 h after irradiation using a Harshaw 3500 TL reader. This paper aims to compare the TL response relative to 60Co of the dosimeters for different phantoms used in radiotherapy dosimetry. CaSO4:Dy dosimeters presented higher TL sensitivity relative to 60Co and intrinsic efficiency than microLiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters for all phantoms.

Determination of absorbed dose to water around a clinical HDR192Ir source using LiF:Mg,Ti TLDs demonstrates an LET dependence of detector response

Experimental radiation dosimetry with thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), calibrated in a (60)Co or megavoltage (MV) photon beam, is recommended by AAPM TG-43U1for verification of Monte Carlo calculated absorbed doses around brachytherapy sources. However, it has been shown by Carlsson Tedgren et al. [Med. Phys. 38, 5539-5550 (2011)] that for TLDs of LiF:Mg,Ti, detector response was 4% higher in a (137)Cs beam than in a (60)Co one. The aim of this work was to investigate if similar over-response exists when measuring absorbed dose to water around (192)Ir sources, using LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters calibrated in a 6 MV photon beam. LiF dosimeters were calibrated to measure absorbed dose to water in a 6 MV photon beam and used to measure absorbed dose to water at distances of 3, 5, and 7 cm from a clinical high dose rate (HDR) (192)Ir source in a polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) phantom. Measured values were compared to values of absorbed dose to water calculated using a treatment planning system (TPS) including corrections for the difference in energy absorption properties between calibration quality and the quality in the users' (192)Ir beam and for the use of a PMMA phantom instead of the water phantom underlying dose calculations in the TPS. Measured absorbed doses to water around the (192)Ir source were overestimated by 5% compared to those calculated by the TPS. Corresponding absorbed doses to water measured in a previous work with lithium formate electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) dosimeters by Antonovic et al. [Med. Phys. 36, 2236-2247 (2009)], using the same irradiation setup and calibration procedure as in this work, were 2% lower than those calculated by the TPS. The results obtained in the measurements in this work and those obtained using the EPR lithium formate dosimeters were, within the expanded (k = 2) uncertainty, in agreement with the values derived by the TPS. The discrepancy between the results using LiF:Mg,Ti TLDs and the EPR lithium formate dosimeters was, however, statistically significant and in agreement with the difference in relative detector responses found for the two detector systems by Carlsson Tedgren et al. [Med. Phys. 38, 5539-5550 (2011)] and by Adolfsson et al. [Med. Phys. 37, 4946-4959 (2010)]. When calibrated in (60)Co or MV photon beams, correction for the linear energy transfer (LET) dependence of LiF:Mg,Ti detector response will be needed as to measure absorbed doses to water in a (192)Ir beam with highest accuracy. Such corrections will depend on the manufacturing process (MTS-N Poland or Harshaw TLD-100) and details of the annealing and read-out schemes used.

Response of LiF:Mg,Ti thermoluminescent dosimeters at photon energies relevant to the dosimetry of brachytherapy (<1 MeV)

High energy photon beams are used in calibrating dosimeters for use in brachytherapy since absorbed dose to water can be determined accurately and with traceability to primary standards in such beams, using calibrated ion chambers and standard dosimetry protocols. For use in brachytherapy, beam quality correction factors are needed, which include corrections for differences in mass energy absorption properties between water and detector as well as variations in detector response (intrinsic efficiency) with radiation quality, caused by variations in the density of ionization (linear energy transfer (LET) -distributions) along the secondary electron tracks. The aim of this work was to investigate experimentally the detector response of LiF:Mg,Ti thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) for photon energies below 1 MeV relative to (60)Co and to address discrepancies between the results found in recent publications of detector response. LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters of formulation MTS-N Poland were irradiated to known values of air kerma free-in-air in x-ray beams at tube voltages 25-250 kV, in (137)Cs- and (60)Co-beams at the Swedish Secondary Standards Dosimetry Laboratory. Conversions from air kerma free-in-air into values of mean absorbed dose in the dosimeters in the actual irradiation geometries were made using EGSnrc Monte Carlo simulations. X-ray energy spectra were measured or calculated for the actual beams. Detector response relative to that for (60)Co was determined at each beam quality. An increase in relative response was seen for all beam qualities ranging from 8% at tube voltage 25 kV (effective energy 13 keV) to 3%-4% at 250 kV (122 keV effective energy) and (137)Cs with a minimum at 80 keV effective energy (tube voltage 180 kV). The variation with effective energy was similar to that reported by Davis et al. [Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 106, 33-43 (2003)] with our values being systematically lower by 2%-4%. Compared to the results by Nunn et al. [Med. Phys. 35, 1861-1869 (2008)], the relative detector response as a function of effective energy differed in both shape and magnitude. This could be explained by the higher maximum read-out temperature (350 °C) used by Nunn et al. [Med. Phys. 35, 1861-1869 (2008)], allowing light emitted from high-temperature peaks with a strong LET dependence to be registered. Use of TLD-100 by Davis et al. [Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 106, 33-43 (2003)] with a stronger super-linear dose response compared to MTS-N was identified as causing the lower relative detector response in this work. Both careful dosimetry and strict protocols for handling the TLDs are required to reach solid experimental data on relative detector response. This work confirms older findings that an over-response relative to (60)Co exists for photon energies below 200-300 keV. Comparison with the results from the literature indicates that using similar protocols for annealing and read-out, dosimeters of different makes (TLD-100, MTS-N) differ in relative detector response. Though universality of the results has not been proven and further investigation is needed, it is anticipated that with the use of strict protocols for annealing and read-out, it will be possible to determine correction factors that can be used to reduce uncertainties in dose measurements around brachytherapy sources at photon energies where primary standards for absorbed dose to water are not available.

Study of LiF:Mg,Ti and CaSO4:Dy dosimeters TL response to electron beams of 6 MeV applied to radiotherapy using PMMA and solid water phantoms

The performance of CaSO4:Dy and LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters to electron beams applied to radiotherapy was investigated. The TL response of these dosimeters was studied for 6 MeV electron beams using PMMA and Solid Water (SW) phantoms. The dosimeters were previously separated in groups according to their TL individual sensitivities to 60Co gamma-radiation in air under electronic equilibrium conditions. After that, they were irradiated with 6 MeV electron doses of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5 and 10 Gy using a linear accelerator Clinac 2100C Varian of Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein – HIAE. The electron beam irradiations were performed using a 10 × 10 cm2 field size, 100 cm source-phantom surface distance and the dosimeters were positioned at the depth of maximum dose (1.2 cm). The TL readings were carried out between 24 and 32 h after irradiation using a Harshaw 3500 TL reader. The TL dose–response of both type of dosimeters and phantoms presented linear behavior on the electron dose range from 0.1 to 5 Gy CaSO4:Dy dosimeter is 21 times more sensitive than LiF:Mg,Ti, dosimeter commonly used in clinical dosimetry. The obtained results indicate that the performance of CaSO4:Dy dosimeters is similar to LiF:Mg,Ti dosimeters and this material can be an alternative dosimetric material to be used to clinical electron beams dosimetry.

Thermoluminescence studies in LiF dosimeter irradiated at 77K and their implications on theoretical models

In LiF:Mg, Ti dosimeters, gamma -irradiation at low temperature (77K) reduces the TL intensities of peaks 7 (260 degrees C) and 10 (450 degrees C) drastically whereas the TL intensity of peak 5 (200 degrees C) remains nearly the same as that after irradiation at room temperature (RT). This implies that during irradiation, interstitial migration is involved in the formation of traps giving rise to peaks 7 and 10. The generic nature of peaks 7 (Z2) and 10 (Z3) traps and their (Z2 to or from Z3) trap conversion are further demonstrated. Since diffusion processes are inhibited, F and Z centres are not formed efficiently in LiF dosimeters irradiated at 77K. Studies on supralinearity, sensitisation, thermal history, optical absorption, optical bleaching, phototransfer and LET dependence following irradiation at RT and at 77K imply that four different processes (competing nonluminescent centre, track interaction during read-out, Z centre and mobile interstitial) are operating simultaneously to varying extents during the trapping/luminescent stage of different TL glow peaks. The photon emission mechanisms of these peaks are discussed. The claim that supralinearity of peak 5 is related to Z3 production is disproved. Further studies on Z centre identification in LiF:Mg, Ti are indicated.