Thule Culture Research Articles

The role of salmon fishing in the adoption of pottery technology in subarctic Alaska

Ceramic technology makes an abrupt appearance in the New World Arctic at circa 2800 cal BP. While there is general consensus that the ultimate source of these Alaskan pottery traditions lay in continental NE Asia, the motivations for the adoption of pottery in Alaska have remained unclear. Through organic residue analysis we investigated the function of Norton pottery in Southwest Alaska, and the extent to which its function changed in later periods under the increasing northern influence of Thule culture in the region (from ca. 1000 cal BP). Our results show clear evidence of aquatic resource processing in all pottery vessels. Regional variability due to environmental and ecological differences are apparent in the pottery. The majority of Norton pottery was from inland riverine locations and the function of this early pottery was to process anadromous fish, with only limited evidence of other resources. After 1000 cal BP more sites appear on the coast, and while pottery technology changes dramatically at this time, this is not as clear in pottery function which remains aimed at local abundant aquatic resources. We hypothesize that pottery was adopted into Alaska as part of a riverine adaptation and suggest that targeted human exploitation of large riverine systems may have facilitated its expansion into Southwest Alaska. Furthermore, we suggest that this pattern might extend back into Siberia where Alaskan pottery originates.

Zooarchaeological Analysis of a Late Holocene Multicomponent Village Site near Shaktoolik, Norton Sound, Alaska

<h3>Abstract</h3> Artifact and settlement data suggest that precolonial subsistence strategies in northwestern Alaska went through an economic transition with increased importance placed on local fish and small game between AD 1400 and AD 1500. From a North American Arctic perspective, this process has been defined as “regionalization.” Here, we present results from a zooarchaeological analysis of over 31,700 faunal remains from the Shaktoolik Airport Site (NOB-072), a large multicomponent precolonial village site adjacent to the Native Village of Shaktoolik in Norton Sound, Alaska. Faunal specimens were derived from 1/4-inch (6.35-mm) screened and bulk sediment samples taken from midden deposits generated during two distinct archaeological or cultural phases from AD 1280 to the mid-1800s: 1) Nukleet, a regional variant of the Western Thule culture, and 2) three chronological periods associated with precolonial Yup’ik occupations. Comparison among archaeological deposits indicates that faunal assemblage composition varies spatially across the site and likely represents discrete seasonal activity areas. Faunal remains from bulk sediment samples also highlight the importance of small forage fish and shellfish, further emphasizing the need for sampling sites using fine-mesh screening. Based on our analysis, precolonial Yup’ik subsistence strategies diversified around AD 1500, coinciding with a broader regionalization trend. This shift may have been in response to the onset of the Little Ice Age (AD 1500–1850), but it could also have been in response to demographic pressure from increased regional populations.

Behind the Ice: The Archaeology of Nunatarsuaq, Southwest Greenland

Here we present the results of archaeological surveys carried out 2012–2019 in Nunatarsuaq, a remote and little investigated region bordered by glaciers and the Kangersuneq ice-fjord at the head of Nuup Kangerlua, Southwest Greenland. We provide a detail analysis of Nunatarsuaq's medieval Norse sites and settlement patterns, clarify previous site identification inconsistencies, and outline the character of subsequent Thule culture/historic Inuit activities. The long-term historical ecology of Nunatarsuaq and Kangersuneq informed by this evidence contradicts an existing notion of the region's marginality. In fact, we find that the Norse settlement included three sizable farms practicing transhumance, a set of new 14C-dates implying that activities were part of first colonization (ca. AD 1000) of the Norse Western Settlement, and continued into the 14th century. We find no evidence that Little Ice Age climatic deterioration, possibly setting in as early as AD 1200, had an immediate impact on Norse settlement in Nunatarsuaq. Successful Norse adaptation strategies probably involved heavy reliance on the locally abundant wild marine and terrestrial species that also attracted and sustained the subsequent Thule culture and later Inuit groups.

Dorset, Norse, or Thule? Technological transfers, marine mammal contamination, and AMS dating of spun yarn and textiles from the Eastern Canadian Arctic

Yarn and textiles recovered from prehistoric Dorset and Thule culture sites in the Eastern Canadian Arctic have raised questions about the extent and timing of indigenous and Norse interaction in the New World, whether the yarn represents technological transfers between Greenland's Norse settlers and the Dorset, or whether these Indigenous Arctic groups had independent fiber technologies before contact with Europeans. However, the extensive use of marine mammals in northern cultural contexts, and the penetration of oils from these animals' tissues into datable terrestrial materials, has posed general problems for reliably dating sites in the Arctic and has raised questions specifically about previous efforts to date these fiber objects. In this paper, we use a recently developed protocol for removing marine mammal organic contaminants entirely from radiocarbon samples, making AMS dating possible and reliable for Arctic research. This study uses those protocols to directly date a suite of woven and spun animal fiber artifacts from five Dorset and Thule archaeological sites in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Directly dating these artifacts with marine mammal oils removed helps to answer questions about Norse contact with Dorset and Thule communities, sheds new light on the topic of indigenous fiber technologies in the North, and raises new questions about European contacts with the people of the North American Arctic prior to sustained efforts at colonization after the 18th century.

Tracing hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotype B5 (formerly B6) evolutionary history in the circumpolar Arctic through phylogeographic modelling.

BackgroundIndigenous populations of the circumpolar Arctic are considered to be endemically infected (>2% prevalence) with hepatitis B virus (HBV), with subgenotype B5 (formerly B6) unique to these populations. The distinctive properties of HBV/B5, including high nucleotide diversity yet no significant liver disease, suggest virus adaptation through long-term host-pathogen association.MethodsTo investigate the origin and evolutionary spread of HBV/B5 into the circumpolar Arctic, fifty-seven partial and full genome sequences from Alaska, Canada and Greenland, having known location and sampling dates spanning 40 years, were phylogeographically investigated by Bayesian analysis (BEAST 2) using a reversible-jump-based substitution model and a clock rate estimated at 4.1 × 10−5 substitutions/site/year.ResultsFollowing an initial divergence from an Asian viral ancestor approximately 1954 years before present (YBP; 95% highest probability density interval [1188, 2901]), HBV/B5 coalescence occurred almost 1000 years later. Surprisingly, the HBV/B5 ancestor appears to locate first to Greenland in a rapid coastal route progression based on the landscape aware geographic model, with subsequent B5 evolution and spread westward. Bayesian skyline plot analysis demonstrated an HBV/B5 population expansion occurring approximately 400 YBP, coinciding with the disruption of the Neo-Eskimo Thule culture into more heterogeneous and regionally distinct Inuit populations throughout the North American Arctic.DiscussionHBV/B5 origin and spread appears to occur coincident with the movement of Neo-Eskimo (Inuit) populations within the past 1000 years, further supporting the hypothesis of HBV/host co-expansion, and illustrating the concept of host-pathogen adaptation and balance.

The Tuvaaluk and Torngat archaeological projects: Review and assessment

In the late 1970s, two large, multi-disciplinary, multi-year archaeological programs were initiated along the coasts of northern Labrador and Ungava in northern Quebec. Both envisioned a new model for Arctic archaeology that integrated archaeology, ethnography, environmental studies, earth sciences, and informatics. The Tuvaaluk research program was directed by Patrick Plumet at the Université du Québec à Montréal, and the Torngat Archaeological Project (TAP) by William Fitzhugh at the Smithsonian Institution and Richard Jordan at Bryn Mawr College. Project periods lasted roughly five years and included researchers and students from several institutions. The Tuvaaluk project concentrated on Paleoeskimo and Thule cultures, while TAP included research on Maritime Archaic and later Indian cultures as well as Paleoeskimo and Inuit cultures. This paper reviews and compares Tuvaaluk and TAP goals, methods, results, lessons learned, and legacies.

The Pembroke Site: Thule Inuit Migrants on Southern Victoria Island

This paper presents description and interpretation of the Pembroke site, the earliest known Thule Inuit occupation in the southeastern Victoria Island region, Nunavut. The site has 11 extant dwellings, including five heavy tent rings, five light semi-subterranean dwellings, and a &lt;em&gt;qalgiq &lt;/em&gt;(large communal structure). The site’s economy revolved mainly around the acquisition of caribou, Arctic char, and lake trout, with minimal consumption of sea mammals. Radiocarbon dates, reinforced by artifact analyses, indicate an occupation around AD 1400. Based on several lines of evidence, including the extremely small artifact samples, the site is interpreted as having been occupied relatively briefly. It represents the first colonization of the region by Thule people, approximately 200 years after the initial Thule migration from Alaska into the eastern Arctic. Thus, it documents a second migration wave: an expansion of Thule peoples from their initially occupied territories to other, in some ways less optimal, regions

Using multiple markers to elucidate the ancient, historical and modern relationships among North American Arctic dog breeds.

Throughout most of the Americas, post-colonial dogs largely erased the genetic signatures of pre-historical dogs. However, the North American Arctic harbors dogs that are potentially descended from pre-historical ancestors, as well as those affected by post-colonial translocations and admixtures. In particular, Inuit dogs from Canada and Greenland are thought to descend from dogs associated with Thule peoples, who relied on them for transportation ca. 1000 years ago. Whether Thule dogs reflected an earlier colonization by Paleoeskimo dogs ca. 4500 years ago is unknown. During the Alaskan Gold Rush, additional sled dogs, possibly of post-colonial derivation, the Alaskan Husky, Malamute and Siberian Husky, were used in the Arctic. The genealogical relationships among and origins of these breeds are unknown. Here we use autosomal, paternal and maternal DNA markers to (1) test the hypothesis that Inuit dogs have retained their indigenous ancestry, (2) characterize their relationship to one another and to other Arctic breeds, and (3) estimate the age of North American indigenous matrilines and patrilines. On the basis of the agreement of all three markers we determined that Inuit dogs have maintained their indigenous nature, and that they likely derive from Thule dogs. In addition, we provide support for previous research that the Inuit dogs from Canada and Greenland dog should not be distinguished as two breeds. The Alaskan Husky displayed evidence of European introgression, in contrast to the Malamute and Siberian Husky, which appear to have maintained most of their ancient Siberian ancestry.

The Thule Inuit Mummies From Greenland.

Fourteen Thule Culture Inuit mummies are described here, including remarks on the cultural and archaeological setting of the Thule people. The mummy finds pertain to two mummy caches: six mummies found near Nuuk, at the site Pissisarfik, and eight mummies from Qilakitsoq. The latter find is the biggest mummy find in the Arctic. The mummies are all children and females. Although their state of preservation is uneven, much data about the Thule culture people has been gleaned from them. This includes the use of facial tattooing, Paleopathology and isotopic and genetic data.

Using paleolimnology to track the impacts of early Arctic peoples on freshwater ecosystems from southern Baffin Island, Nunavut

Paleolimnological approaches can be used to determine the ways in which past Arctic peoples have affected the ecosystems in which they live, and simultaneously to reconstruct the climate and other aspects of the environment that may have influenced local populations. Here we analyze sediment cores from seven ponds on the south-western coast of Baffin Island, Nunavut, in order to assess the impacts of early Arctic peoples on freshwater ecosystems. Prior to the historic Inuit occupation, the study area was extensively inhabited by Thule culture Inuit (ca 1200–1600 AD) and by an earlier Arctic group, the Dorset culture Palaeo-Eskimos (ca 500 BC–1500 AD) and their predecessors from as early as 2500 BC. The study ponds were selected to cover a gradient of the intensity of human activity in their catchments. The ecological impacts of early hunting societies can be detected using paleolimnology because the butchering of marine mammals released nutrients that eutrophied nearby ponds and left distinct geochemical signals in the sediments. The degree of eutrophication in the small freshwater ponds depended on the length of the occupation, as well as the amount and type of marine mammals taken as primary prey items (eg, whales, walrus, or seals). All sediment cores were AMS 14C dated to establish their chronologies, and analyzed for diatoms and stable isotopes of nitrogen (δ15N). Both diatoms and sedimentary δ15N have been previously demonstrated to respond sensitively to nutrient enrichment from Inuit whalers. Our δ15N and diatom data record nutrient enrichment in lakes surrounded by either long-term Thule or Dorset settlements. The Dorset sites that were the locations of periodic seasonal gatherings did not register any evidence of eutrophication in the nearby ponds, reflecting the shorter, less intensive nature of these occupations. Similarly, nearby control ponds with no evidence of significant human activity in their catchments showed little-to-no changes in δ15N profiles and diatom assemblages. Due to slow rates of decomposition, nutrients from butchered marine animal bones continue to influence the freshwater sites into which they drain, as evidenced by higher than typical nutrient and production-related water chemistry variables.

Radiocarbon dating of musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) bones from the Thule region, northwest Greenland

ABSTRACTThe Thule region in north Greenland formerly supported a population of musk-oxen (Ovibos moschatus). Radiocarbon dating of bones of this mammal collected on the terrain surface and from archaeological sites has yielded late Holocene ages, indicating that the species was a late immigrant to this part of Greenland. The species may have arrived at a time when the area was uninhabited, and it had at least a thousand years to spread south, before the Late Dorset people arrived. The heavy glaciation of Melville Bugt in the late Holocene was probably the main reason that the musk-ox did not disperse south to west Greenland. The population of musk-ox in the region may have peaked during the Medieval Warm Period, and the species survived during the occupation of the region by the Late Dorset people. The size of the population may have declined during the beginning of the Little Ice Age, and musk-ox was probably exterminated from the region shortly after the arrival of the mobile Thule people.

A First Isotopic Dietary Study of the Greenlandic Thule Culture

The isotopic dietary method has been applied to samples of some 65 Thule Culture individuals from existing archaeological collections of Greenlandic human skeletal material. The aim was to use the Greenlandic Thule Culture as a test of the isotopic method, in that we know they were heavily dependent on marine resources, and should thus provide a direct measure of the isotopic values for humans consuming almost entirely marine protein. The sites from which the material was originally obtained encompass almost the entire periphery of Greenland. Isotopic data from a study of animals of Greenland was used as the basis for analysis. As expected, the results indicate that these people were almost entirely dependent on the marine biosphere for their protein. An exception is those from Northeast Greenland, whose isotopic signatures show evidence for consumption of terrestrial protein as well. Not expected were the observed differences at the regional and local levels.

An Isotopic Analysis of the Diet of the Greenland Norse

Abstract Our understanding of the Norse dietary adaptations to their Greenlandic home comes primarily from sparse historical records, from what is known of the Norse dietary economy in other North Atlantic lands, and from zooarchaeological examinations of the animal bones found in the various excavations of Norse Greenlandic sites which have taken place over the past century. To obtain more detailed information on the diets of the Norse settlers in Greenland, measures of the stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) values of human bone collagen have been made for 80 individuals from an existing collection of Norse skeletal material. The material is from five churchyards in the Norse Eastern Settlement and two churchyards in the Western Settlement. These data are interpreted with the aid of similar data obtained for the wild fauna of Greenland, for the Norse domestic animals and for a number of Thule Culture individuals of about the same time period. It is clear that application of the isotopic dietary met...

Archaeological Commentary on the Isotopic Study of the Greenland Thule Culture

An archaeological commentary is given on the results of the first isotopic study of the Greenland Thule culture. To test the isotopic data derived from human remains from the graves, comparative archaeological data of the faunal and artifactual material from the sites are presented. To make the two data sets comparable, the faunal material are presented in NISP and the artifactual material are presented as technounits. The three data sets given, i.e., the isotopic, the faunal, and the artifactual, confirm that the Inuit were heavily reliant on marine protein and resources. Exceptions are those from Northeast Greenland, whose isotopic signatures show evidence of consumption of terrestrial protein as well, a statement confirmed by the archaeological material, faunal as well as artifactual, showing that ca. 20% and 40% of bones as well as technounits found on coastal and inland sites, respectively, are related to terrestrial resources. The conclusion made is that the isotopic analyses are valid in archaeological contexts and support the archaeological material. Concerning the substantial use of inland resources in Northeast Greenland compared with the ethnographically documented intensive caribou hunting in West Greenland, the former region still remains most enigmatic from a cultural point of view.

The petrology and provenance of coal artifacts from Thule settlements in north-eastern Greenland

Coal petrographic techniques have been used to trace the origin of coal used to produce artifacts by the Thule people in north-eastern Greenland. The coal artifacts were collected from the north-east coast settlements between 76°55'–80°18'N and date back to the 15th century A.D. The petrographic data suggest that they have a common source, the Middle Jurassic coals outcropping south of 75°15' in north-eastern Greenland. It is thus evident that the Thule people used local material rather than bringing the coal from the known “mines” in Arctic Canada. It also implies that contemporaneous Thule people groups along the east coast of Greenland were in contact and traded.

The Material Culture of Inupiat Whaling: An Ethnographic and Ethnohistorical Perspective

Whaling has long been the organizing focus of coastal North Slope Inupiat culture. Many scholars believe that whaling was important in Thule culture prior to the Thule migration. Despite this, abundant evidence for whaling has not been found at many Western Thule sites. I examine the material correlates of current and historic modern Inupiat whaling, primarily in Barrow through interviews with active whaling captains and their wives, as well as historic data. I look at the items that are associated primarily with whaling and where these items are used and stored. Although modern whaling appears on the surface to have changed markedly, it is suggested that the basic activities are relatively similar and therefore the associated patterns of material culture can be of assistance in detecting past whaling. I also briefly describe a locus at the Nuvuk site that appears to have been associated with whaling activities at the very beginning of the modern whaling period.

At the edge: High Arctic Walrus hunters during the Little Ice Age

A multi-disciplinary study of settlement in north-east Greenland found that life in this High Arctic zone was actually favoured by the climate brought in by the Little Ice Age (fifteenth–nineteenth century). Extensive ice cover meant high mobility, and the rare polynyas — small patches of permanently open coastal water — provided destinations, like oases, where huge numbers of migrating marine mammals and birds congregated. One such place was Walrus Island on Sirius Water, a veritable processing plant for walrus, where every spring Thule people stocked up meat supplies that would get the rest of the region through the winter. It was a further drop in the temperature in the mid nineteenth century that led to the region being abandoned.

Norse–Inuit interaction and landscape change in southern Greenland? A geochronological, Pedological, and Palynological investigation

AbstractRuins representing both medieval Norse and Inuit (Thule culture) settlements can be found together on the coast at Sandhavn (59°59′ N, 44°46′ W), Greenland. The site presents a rare opportunity to investigate the character of past contact and interaction between these two peoples. Soils‐based, radiocarbon, and palynological analyses demonstrate the creation of hortic anthrosols within Norse home‐fields used between the mid‐11th and late 14th centuries A.D. Irrigation channels have been identified within the home‐fields, while rising grass pollen influx reveals intensification in hay production over the period ca. A.D. 1260–1350 despite climatic deterioration setting in around this time. Floor deposits and wall packing from an Inuit winter house returned dates of cal. A.D. 1220–1290 (2σ), yet no direct landscape‐based evidence for Inuit activity could be determined. Although the exact nature of the relationship between Norse and Thule at Sandhavn remains unclear, the role of this site as a harbor and possible trading area may have attracted Inuit settlers keen to participate in European trade networks. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Faunal Remains from the Wollaston Forland—Clavering Ø Region, Northeast Greenland—Thule Culture Subsistence in a High Arctic Polynya and Ice-edge Habitat

Geografisk Tidsskrift—Danish Journal of Geography 110(2):175–200, 2010 The GeoArk project conducted interdisciplinary studies between 2003 and 2008 to investigate the Thule culture (c. 1400 AD until c. 1850 AD) in the Wollaston Forland- Clavering Ø region (74°N). Faunal remains of recent excavations and re-analyses of previous excavations of Thule culture seasonal features, winter houses and middens are presented, with an emphasis on the two winter sites of Fladstrand and Dødemandsbugten. The faunal assemblages showed ringed seal (Phoca hispida) to be the key game species, although, with important contingents of narwhal (Monodon monocerosj and caribou (Rangifer tarandus) Thule subsistence was highly dependent on having a well developed procurement system and the sea- and landscape was used differentially during the annual cycle. Hvalros Ø, located at the recurring Sirius Water Polynya, was used as a seasonal aggregation site especially for hunting walrus (Odobenus rosmarusj) throughout the entire Thule culture era. Being a predictable source of meat and blubber, the walrus was of fundamental importance to the Thule Inuit in order to cope with a harsh high arctic environment. The site locations of the study area revealed a continued similar usage of the sea- and landscape for centuries and the analyses documented only minor temporal changes in subsistence patterns.

Coastal environments around Thule settlements in Northeast Greenland

Geografisk Tidsskrift—Danish Journal of Geography 110(2):143–154, 2010 Inuit have travelled to and settled in the coastal landscapes of Northeast Greenland for several longer periods during the latest ca. 4500 years. Most recently the Thule culture Inuit lived in the region from around 1400 until 1850 AD. The access to partly and periodically ice covered near coastal waters has been crucial to the primarily marine based subsistence strategy of the Thule Inuit culture, and their settlements are therefore found immediately at the coast. Changing geological and geomorphologic settings strongly influence the coastal morphodynamics, and only specific locations offer stable and protected conditions needed for proper winter settlements. The comprehensive study of coastal environments and Thule culture winter settlements in the Young Sound region show an accumulation of winter settlements, nearly all located either in protected pocket beaches or on stable basalt capes. The Thule culture abandoned Northeast Greenland about 1850 AD, and apart from settlements on basalt capes, most of the winter settlement sites in pocket beach areas have been affected by erosion of local character and in some cases also affected by increasing wave erosion during recent periods of less ice in near coastal waters.