Three-wheeled Vehicle Research Articles

Determination of Warehouse Locations for Logistics Services in an Integrated City Spatial System (Case Study in Bekasi City)

Human needs consisting of clothing, food, shelter and medicines will increase every year and require services. There are many planning changes in the digital era, so it is necessary to study the location theory of logistics service storage warehouses in the city spatial system. This study aims to identify the characteristics of existing logistics services, examine the determination of the location of existing logistics service storage warehouses and become an opportunity for logistics service players who wish to be located in the region. This study uses location theory for location determination, nearest Neighbour ratio analysis and analytical hierarchical process in determining the criteria and alternative locations for logistics service storage warehouses. The results of the analysis in the identification of characteristics, namely location, company operations, company management, settlement patterns affect the distribution pattern of logistics services. Then the more dominant criterion is the market with the value obtained (0.542) because in carrying out any business activity, you have to see who is the market for the business activities being carried out. At the location of the case study as a sample, namely Jatiraden (0.618) which has the most potential according to criteria related to market, cost, human resources, infrastructure and institutions. The conclusions obtained for operational matters using three-wheeled vehicles in the distribution of logistics services are an alternative in distributing uniform residential areas. More loads and easier mobility because the accessibility of vehicles in uniform residential patterns tends to be wide. Suggestions that can be conveyed in determining the location and making any business activity must be seen from the urban area planning. So that stakeholders can refer to the city's spatial planning system, so that policies made by the government can be compatible and aligned with logistics service companies.

Estimation of SOC for Li-ion battery-powered three-wheeled electric vehicle using machine learning methods

Abstract The Battery Management System (BMS) serves as the heart of the electric vehicle system, in which estimating the state of charge (SOC) is the crucial part of the BMS to ensure the durability, reliability, and sustainability of the battery pack. Due to its nonlinear characteristics, accurately estimating the SOC for a slow degradation of the charge is highly cumbersome. The literature provides a series of machine learning algorithms (MLA) to estimate and predict the SOC of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery systems for electric vehicle (EV) applications. The literature has proposed various MLA, coulomb counting, and different Kalman filter methods to address this challenge and estimate the SOC of Li-ion battery systems for EV applications. This research looks at the differences and similarities between the coulomb counting method, the unscented Kalman filter method, and a number of machine learning algorithms. These include linear regression, polynomial linear regression, support vector regression, decision trees, random forests, artificial neural networks (ANN), and long short-term memory (LSTM). The goal is to assess the MLAs' accuracy in estimating battery SOC. Analyzing model errors optimizes the battery's performance parameter. We identify ANN and LSTM as the two most efficient methods for accurate SOC estimation in an EV-operated BMS system by evaluating the performance indices of the aforementioned machine learning methodologies. Once again, the LSTM model for SOC estimation has proven to be highly accurate in analyzing the discrepancy between the actual and predicted traveling ranges of the designed prototype. We design a MATLAB/SIMULINK EV powertrain by collecting realtime data from the Li-ion battery pack, analyzing the SOC variation data, and using the previously mentioned MLA in the Python platform to estimate the SOC and its accuracy. It highlights the effectiveness of advanced MLAs in improving SOC estimation, thereby enhancing the performance and reliability of EV battery systems.

IoT-enabled advanced monitoring system for tubular batteries: Enhancing efficiency and reliability

Monitoring battery health is crucial for predicting the lifespan of batteries in electric vehicles. Real time voltage, current, and operating temperature are the key factors influencing longevity. An efficient data acquisition (DAQ) system becomes essential for accurately monitoring real-time battery operating parameters. For commercially viable three-wheeled electric vehicles, a cost-effective yet highly accurate DAQ is imperative. Current commercially available lead-acid three-wheeled electric vehicles lack a dedicated DAQ for monitoring battery health. In this investigation, we address this gap by developing a low-cost, multi-channel DAQ tailored for such electric vehicles, integrated with a cloud server for subsequent data analysis and Remaining Useful Life (RUL) prediction. The implemented prototype excels in measuring individual battery terminal voltage and battery pack voltage under operating conditions, employing the node voltage subtraction method. It also features real-time detection of high current discharges up to 30A using a Hall effect-based current sensor. A custom temperature sensor probe was designed to detect battery electrolyte temperatures up to 60 °C, with multiple probes operating in multiplexed mode to reduce circuit complexity. The system is proficient in storing recorded data locally and in the cloud. A mobile device platform has been developed and interfaced with the system for real-time monitoring of battery parameters. After testing multiple prototypes in running vehicles for over 1000h without failure, the system demonstrated a high accuracy level of 98.6 %. Multiple prototypes were designed to validate the measured accuracy.

Performance Evaluation of an Electric Drive System Applied to a Three-wheel Hybrid Prototype Vehicle for Urban Mobility

Performance Evaluation of an Electric Drive System Applied to a Three-wheel Hybrid Prototype Vehicle for Urban Mobility

Structural Evaluation of a Three-Wheeler VehicleUsing Simulation Tools: A Case Study in Mexico

The mototaxi, a three-wheeled vehicle equipped with a roof, is a widely utilized mode of transportation in Mexico. Typically, it is employed for short-distance journeys in exchange for payment, similar to the operation of a conventional taxi. This study conducts astructural analysis of a mototaxi-type vehicle utilized in Mexico to assess its performance and safety. It underscores the significance of this mode of transportation, widely relied upon by numerous individuals. A product design and development methodology was employed, utilizing torsional deformation simulations to validate the new geometry. The objective was to minimize torsions as much as possible, thereby enhancing the motorcycle taxi’s safety and ensuring the vehicle’s correct positioning. Through computeraided design, the prevailing torsions within the casing were assessed, establishing the operating conditions to which the system is commonlysubjected. The findings from the chosen vehicular structure reveal a flexural rigidity of 6,508.15 N/mm, torsional rigidity of 27.35 KNm/°, and a range of natural frequencies between 8-21 Hz. These values indicate favorable resistance against bending forces and operational frequency. However, the torsional results exhibit deficiencies, suggesting an unsafe structure for all motorcycle taxi occupants. Consequently, technology developers and national legislators should prioritize enhancing the structural integrity of such vehicles.

Failure Analysis of the Half-Shafts Belonging to a Three-Wheeled Electric Vehicle

Failure Analysis of the Half-Shafts Belonging to a Three-Wheeled Electric Vehicle

Development of an electric drive for personal light electric vehicles

Problem. The article addresses the challenge of enhancing inclusive mobility and environmental cleanliness by developing a traction electric drive for personal light electric vehicles. A study was conducted on modern electric drive systems for personal light electric vehicles. Goal. The aim is to boost inclusive mobility and environmental cleanliness through the development of a traction electric drive for a personal light electric vehicle, specifically based on a tricycle. Methodology. The methodology involves scientific analysis and synthesis of traction electric drives for electric vehicles. An assessment of the nominal capacity of the battery module from the Nissan Leaf electric car was conducted using both partial discharge procedures and the Leaf Spy Pro program. Results. Based on an analysis of existing electric drive systems, a traction electric drive for a tricycle was developed. A functional diagram of the electric bicycle drive was generated. A control system for a sensorless brushless motor was developed, determining rotor position by measuring EMF in the free phase. This led to the creation of a stable voltage electrical circuit with a virtual midpoint. The tricycle's electric drive utilizes two 10-inch motor wheels on the rear wheels, enabling high speed and efficiency. Controllers specifically designed for electric wheel motors with a power of 350 W were selected to control the traction electric drive. Modules from the 2015 Nissan Leaf electric car's battery, which had depleted 20% of their capacity, were chosen to power the electric drive. The battery health status is 77.95%. A model of the battery's electrical equivalent circuit was constructed, and partial discharge graphs of the Nissan Leaf battery module were analyzed. Originality. The results provide a comprehensive insight into the development of a traction electric drive for personal light electric vehicles, using a tricycle as an example. Practical value. The research led to the development of an electric drive for a three-wheeled vehicle, with two motor wheels of 350 W nominal power each. The power supply voltage ranges from 36 V to 48 V, powered by six battery modules from the Nissan Leaf electric car, totaling 48 V. The energy capacity of one battery module is 0.3898 kWh, resulting in a total energy capacity of 2.3388 kWh for the vehicle's battery. However, the realizable capacity does not exceed 1.871 kWh, providing a travel distance of approximately 75 km on one battery charge. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of reusing batteries from electric cars with diminished capacity to power light electric vehicles. The results are relevant for scientific and technical professionals involved in electric vehicle development.

Topology Optimization of Three-Wheeler Electric Vehicle Brake Pedal

Abstract: In this project a new design is proposed on the 3 wheeler vehicle brake pedal for weight reduction and it is analyzed by software named FEA. In this an electrical three-wheel vehicle brake pedal is designed for weight optimization. Brake pedals are widely used in all automotive, which acts as a linkage between occupant and brake mechanism. Existing design seems to be overdesigned as per requirement, FEA used to apply cantilever load Optistruct solver used to perform topology optimization. The model of an existing brake pedal was generated using SolidWorksV5 modeling. Furthermore, the FEA analysis is done using ANSYS workbench 21. A three-wheel vehicle brake pedal was analyzed and optimized for weight reduction in this study. Optimize design will be tested using compression loading UTM machine.

Investigating the sustainability of the tourism industry through consumer intention to purchase electric three-wheelers: the case of Sri Lanka

Purpose In the realm of tourism and sustainability, transportation and mobility hold a crucial position. Among the green product categories, three-wheeled electric vehicles have gained significant attention due to their environmental benefits. However, research on consumers’ intentions to purchase these vehicles is limited, particularly in Asian destinations like Sri Lanka. This study aims to bridge this gap by examining the direct and indirect impacts of green brand awareness, green brand associations and green perceived quality of local Sri Lankans’ intention to choose branded electric three-wheelers in future purchase decisions. Design/methodology/approach A questionnaire survey garnered 400 usable responses, and structural equation modeling was used to test hypotheses. Findings The results indicate that green brand awareness, green brand associations and green perceived quality have a direct positive and significant effect on consumers’ intention to choose branded electric three-wheelers in future purchase decisions and green trust. Also, green trust has a positive and significant direct effect on consumers’ intention to choose branded electric three-wheelers in future purchase decisions. Furthermore, the results indicate that only green brand associations and green perceived quality have an indirect positive and significant effect on consumers’ intention to choose branded electric three-wheelers in future purchase decisions through green trust. Originality/value This research contributes to the tourism industry and other sectors involved in sustainability efforts in several ways. First, it emphasizes the importance of fostering positive associations with eco-friendly attributes and perceived product quality to build consumer trust and influence their purchase intentions for green products. Second, the study underscores the relevance of highlighting eco-friendly product attributes to stimulate consumer interest and adoption of green products. Finally, it theoretically underscores the significance of building trust through transparent and credible sustainability initiatives.

Dynamic behavior of three-wheel vehicle with inerter-based dynamic absorber suspension system

Three-wheeled vehicles may be a better choice as compared with four-wheeler cars provided they are properly designed to improve the rollover stabilities and ride comfort. The design modifications need improvement in geometry and suspension. This article presents the dynamic behavior of three-wheeled vehicle equipped with an inerter-based dynamic absorber and compares the same with the conventional suspension system. The performance parameters analyzed are vertical-lateral acceleration, front & rear suspension deflection, and front & rear dynamic tyre loads. The analytical rigid body model is formulated by assigning 9 degrees of freedom to the system for the evaluation of performance parameters to compare the inerter-based absorber suspension with the conventional passive suspension system.

Design of Medical Self-Propelled Walking Tricycle as a Post-Stroke Rehabilitation Tool

Patients recovering from a stroke may not be able to use all rehabilitation equipment due to their poor muscle strength and coordination. This study proposes to design a self-propelled walking tricycle that is a non-motorized three-wheel vehicle in a delta configuration without a pedal. This study was conducted by considering the post-stroke patient needs. It was done using two analysis methods, finite element analysis, and rapid upper limb analysis, to justify the reliability of the design. The results show that the maximum stress is 38.8 MPa in the connection area of the seat tube and down tube, while the maximum deformation is 0.399 mm in the seat post. The tricycle is constructed with 153 mm of ground clearance. Therefore, patients can lift their legs and drive the tricycle by swinging their legs repeatedly, like walking. The proposed self-propelled walking tricycle can be considered as a rehabilitation tool that can train the lower extremities. It could be used for strengthening the muscles and improve body coordination for the recovery process.

Development of a Hydrogen Fuel Cell Prototype Vehicle Supported by Artificial Intelligence for Green Urban Transport

In the automotive sector, the zero emissions area has been dominated by battery electric vehicles. However, prospective users cite charging times, large batteries, and the deployment of charging stations as a counter-argument. Hydrogen will offer a solution to these areas, in the future. This research focuses on the development of a prototype three-wheeled vehicle that is named Neumann H2. It integrates state-of-the-art energy storage systems, demonstrating the benefits of solar-, battery-, and hydrogen-powered drives. Of crucial importance for the R&D platform is the system’s ability to record its internal states in a time-synchronous format, providing valuable data for researchers and developers. Given that the platform is equipped with the ROS2 Open-Source interface, the data are recorded in a standardized format. Energy management is supported by artificial intelligence of the “Reinforcement Learning” type, which selects the optimal energy source for operation based on different layers of high-fidelity maps. In addition to powertrain control, the vehicle also uses artificial intelligence to detect the environment. The vehicle’s environment-sensing system is essentially designed to detect, distinguish, and select environmental elements through image segmentation using camera images and then to provide feedback to the user via displays.

Modelling and simulation of fuel tank with increased capacity and improving its location for better stability of three wheeled vehicle

In the automotive industry, the fuel tank is an essential component of the vehicle. It is; designed as an integral part of the fuel system to transport the fuel and deliver it to the engine via the fuel filter and fuel pump. In Ethiopia, it is observed that due to the smaller fuel tank of three-wheeled vehicles, more frequent visits to fuel stations result in a lot of time being wasted waiting in long queues at fuel stations. In addition, the current location of the fuel tank causes some stability problems. Subsequently, the method, location, installation techniques and stability analysis of the three-wheeled vehicle are carried out. This study includes a new design of fuel tanks for three-wheeled vehicles in which the capacity is doubled and the rollover stability; of the vehicle is maintained. The SOLIDWORKS software and the CFD software ANSYS FLUENT for the sloshing analysis were used for the modeling of this work. The CFD results of the comparative sloshing analysis of partially filled (50% level) fuel tanks with and without baffles are performed; and conclusions are drawn. It is concluded that a baffle plate for the fuel tank offers the greatest advantage in reducing the effects of sloshing. The newly developed part is mounted on the underside of the passenger seat. A bottom-mounted fuel tank optimizes the vehicle's center of gravity, as the height of the vehicle's center of gravity is lowered by 30 mm. This increases the rollover safety of the vehicle. According to the analysis, the mileage of the filled existing and new tanks is 136 km and 272 km respectively. To refuel once, the driver waits an average of 5 h and works about two days for the existing tank and four days for the new tank.

A study on the effect of non-psychological factors on the adoption of three-wheeler electric vehicles

A study on the effect of non-psychological factors on the adoption of three-wheeler electric vehicles

Estimation of PCU’s in Heterogeneous Traffic by Different methods

Transportation gets more intricate when cities get busier. Increased motor vehicles are moving into towns, which means increased traffic jams. The impacts of urbanisation are pervasive and include, but are not limited to, traffic performance, road safety, pollution, and traffic congestion. The rising number of people in the nation is driving up demand for personal vehicles including cars and motorcycles. Adding additional lanes is not enough to solve traffic congestion effectively. So, studying passenger car units (PCU) in heterogeneous traffic becomes necessary. Efforts to derive PCU values for cities roads with various traffic situations are made on this article. Using the density technique, we got somewhat different PCU values for the remaining three cars, but Chandra's method gave us PCU values of 1.99, 3.37, and 1.33, respectively. The data shows that buses make up a significant portion of the traffic in this region, constituting 23% of the total. Of the entire traffic volume, cars account for 16%. There are 19% fewer cars and trucks on two wheels in the research region. Of the total vehicles in the research region, buses constitute 21%. Nineteen percent of all traffic is caused by cars. It has been found that according to site 1 in the research region, three-wheeled vehicles constitute 18% of total traffic.

VEHICLE CLASSIFICATION IN URBAN REGIONS OF THE GLOBAL SOUTH FROM AERIAL IMAGERY

Abstract. Land transport is a major contributor to the human-caused climate change; knowing the total number and composition of the vehicle fleet is key for estimating its emissions. Especially for countries of the Global South, emission inventories are associated with high uncertainties because fleet data are often unknown or outdated – classifying vehicles on remote sensing has the potential to change this. We present the XWHEEL dataset based on annotated vehicles in aerial images with six classes depending on the number of wheels, size and motorization. The dataset consists of 73 annotated aerial images of the city of Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) with 15,973 vehicles. To analyze the performance of the dataset, a convolutional neural network, ReDet, and a transformer-based neural network, DINOOBB, are trained with different configurations and validated on the validation and test split, but also on aerial images from other regions. The transformer-based DINO architecture has been adapted to the remote sensing domain and modified to predict Oriented Bounding Boxes. Results show a good performance on the test split from Dar es Salaam, when the two-wheeled classes are merged and the non-motorized three-wheeled vehicles are excluded due to their rare occurrence. The best performing algorithm configurations with four classes were then tested on aerial images of Kathmandu (Nepal) and Kampala (Uganda). The performance drops for cycles and three-wheeled vehicles, as their appearance varies between countries. A main finding is that we can reliably detect the different vehicle classes in Dar es Salaam. When algorithms trained on XWHEEL are generalized to other regions of the Global South, performance decreases for the more difficult classes (bicycles and tricycles). To obtain results that are comparable across the board, we therefore recommend expanding the dataset with additional annotations from other regions of the Global South.

An Analysis of Mechanical and Thermal Stresses, Temperature and Displacement within the Transparent Cylinder and Piston Top of a Small Direct-Injection Spark-Ignition Optical Engine

Two- and three-wheeled vehicles account for a significant portion of the automobile market in several countries worldwide. In order to advance the capabilities of these vehicles, the integration of direct-injection (DI) technology is essential, given its potential benefits such as high thermal efficiency and low engine-out emissions. Direct injection in small-bore engines, however, further complicates the challenges involved (of DI technology) like fuel impingement and mixture inhomogeneity inside the engine cylinder, driving the need for an in-depth exploration of in-cylinder processes. Consequently, the necessity arises to develop a small-bore direct-injection spark-ignition (DISI) optical engine that incorporates a transparent cylinder and piston top. In this scenario, these transparent components are required to endure a combination of intricate loads and boundary conditions, hence the potential to result in failures. This work aims to assess numerically the effects of these loads and boundary conditions on the transparent components and optimize their thicknesses. For this purpose, a computer-aided design model of a small-bore DISI optical engine (displacement volume of 200 cm3) is developed. The mechanical and thermal loads are extracted from the experimental data and validated computational fluid dynamics model of the same engine configuration. A coupled temperature-displacement finite element analysis methodology is developed in ABAQUS/CAE, and simulations are performed under both steady and transient conditions. Temperature and combined stress distributions within the transparent cylinder and piston top are obtained and analyzed to find their optimum thicknesses. Knowing thermal gradients, combined stresses and displacements under actual conditions helped design the small optical engine with an improved factor of safety.

Optimized designed controlled driver circuit of a three-wheeled electric vehicle and implemented in hardware

Optimized designed controlled driver circuit of a three-wheeled electric vehicle and implemented in hardware

DEVELOPMENT OF PROPELLER POWERED VEHICLE

— Many experiments have been conducted on wind-driven vehicles in the last decade, and wind-driven vehicle systems have moved faster along their paths than wind. Here, the car is powered by an aircraft propeller that is used. Therefore, we called it a "propeller-driven engine." This concept comes from merging the propulsion and automobile fields. A propeller-driven car is one type of simple power vehicle. This vehicle can be used as a ground vehicle. In the current scenario, the construction of a vehicle is a very difficult challenge because of its complex design, which requires considerable time and precaution. It cannot be constructed by a single engineer or an expert. A propeller-powered vehicle is one of the solutions to these problems. In defense, shifting a vehicle is a very complex task, and the propeller power car is the solution for which it can be easily dismantled and assembled. The propellerpowered car has a simple design. A vehicle carries 100 kg of weight, and its seating capacity is one. A propel-driven vehicle operates as a three-wheeler vehicle using aircraft propeller thrust. A propeller is placed in the rear section of the car, which gives power to the car. Propellers generate thrust by rotating an airfoil in a circle, which generates thrust by accelerating the airflow backward away from the propeller. The construction of a vehicle is less timeconsuming and easier to assemble.

Utilizing Dynamic Analysis in the Complex Design of an Unconventional Three-Wheeled Vehicle with Enhancing Cornering Safety

Current trends in the transportation industry prioritize competitive rivalry, compelling manufacturers to prioritize concepts such as quality and reliability. These concepts are closely associated with public expectations of safety, vehicle lifespan, and trouble-free operation. However, the public must recognize that a vehicle weighing several hundred kilograms, moving at a non-zero speed, only contacts the road surface through a few points (depending on the number of wheels), each no larger than a human palm. Therefore, it is imperative to operate the vehicle in a manner that optimizes the behavior of these contact points. There are situations where drivers find themselves requiring dynamic vehicle handling, often unpredictable with a high degree of uncertainty. Rapid changes in direction become necessary in these cases. Such maneuvers can pose a significant risk of rollover for three-wheeled vehicles. Hence, the vehicle itself should contribute to increased ride safety. This paper presents key findings from the development of an unconventional three-wheeled vehicle utilizing the delta arrangement. Rollover safety for three-wheeled vehicles is currently well-managed, thanks to the utilization of electronic or mechatronic systems in delta-type vehicles to enhance stability. However, these systems require additional components. In contrast, the proposed control system operates solely on a mechanical principle, eliminating operational costs, energy consumption, maintenance expenses, and similar factors. The study also explores the absence of equivalent suspension and steering systems for front-wheel steering. Such designs are lacking in both practical applications and theoretical realms. Analytical and simulation calculations are compared in this study, highlighting the effectiveness of the newly proposed control system in enhancing stability and safety compared to conventional front-wheel suspension systems. Simulation programs provide more realistic results than analytical calculations due to their ability to account for dynamic effects on vehicle components and passengers, which is practically unfeasible in analytical approaches. Furthermore, this study focuses on investigating the fatigue life of material frames subjected to dynamic loading, which is a crucial aspect of ensuring safety. It is essential to have various testing devices to examine the fatigue life of materials under both uniaxial and multiaxial loading conditions. However, obtaining experimental results for fatigue life measurements of specific materials, which can be directly applied to one’s research, poses significant challenges. Hence, the proposed testing device plays a vital role in measuring material fatigue life and advancing the development of unconventional transportation methods. The information about the original testing device aligns perfectly with the article’s emphasis on dynamic analysis. The ultimate objective of all these efforts is to put the vehicle into practical operation for commercial utilization.