Three-dimensional Vision Research Articles

A Calculation Method of Bearing Balls Rotational Vectors Based on Binocular Vision Three-Dimensional Coordinates Measurement

The rotational speed vectors of the bearing balls affect their service life and running performance. Observing the actual rotational speed of the ball is a prerequisite for revealing its true motion law and conducting sliding behavior simulation analysis. To address the need for accuracy and real-time measurement of spin angular velocity, which is also under high-frequency and high-speed ball motion conditions, a new measurement method of ball rotation vectors based on a binocular vision system is proposed. Firstly, marker points are laid on the balls, and their three-dimensional (3D) coordinates in the camera coordinate system are calculated in real time using the triangulation principle. Secondly, based on the 3D coordinates before and after the movement of the marker point and the trajectory of the ball, the mathematical model of the spin motion of the ball was established. Finally, based on the ball spin motion model, the three-dimensional vision measurement technology was first applied to the measurement of the bearing ball rotation vector through formula derivation, achieving the analysis of bearing ball rolling and sliding characteristics. Experimental results demonstrate that the visual measurement system with the frame rate of 100 FPS (frames per second) yields a measurement error within ±0.2% over a speed range from 5 to 50 RPM (revolutions per minute), and the maximum measurement errors of spin angular velocity and linear velocity are 0.25°/s and 0.028 mm/s, respectively. The experimental results show that this method has good accuracy and stability in measuring the rotation vector of the ball, providing a reference for bearing balls' rotational speed monitoring and the analysis of the sliding behavior of bearing balls.

Application of Three-Dimensional Vision Technology in Dance

The development of science and technology constantly injects new vitality into dance performance and creation. Among them, three-dimensional (3D) vision technology provides novel ideas for the innovation and artistry of dance performances, expands the forms of dance performances and the way to present dance works, and brings a brand-new viewing experience to the audience. Nowadays, 3D vision technology in dance has been widely researched and applied. This review presents the background of the 3D vision technology application in the dance field, analyzes the main types of technology and working principles for realizing 3D vision, summarizes the research and application of the 3D vision technology in dance creation, perception, enhancement, and dance teaching, and finally looks forward to the development prospect of the 3D vision technology in the dance.

Dental students' perceptions of the use of two-dimensional and three-dimensional vision in dental education using a three-dimensional haptic simulator: A qualitative study.

To assess the perceptions of novice and experienced undergraduate dental students of virtual learning with two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) vision. This qualitative study involved 21 students from the second and fourth years of a 5-year BDS program. They first performed three operative tasks in virtual reality (VR) training sessions using both 2D and 3D vision. Subsequently, they participated in one of four online focus group discussions (FGDs). The FGDs were recorded and transcribed, and the data obtained from the transcriptions were coded and thematically analyzed. Three main themes emerged from the focus groups. With regard to their perceptions of 2D and 3D vision, most of the participants preferred 3D over 2D vision, mainly due to an improved ability to perceive depth. With regard to the theme of practicing 3D vision in the VR environment, some participants performed their tasks faster with 3D vision than with 2D vision, while others did not perceive any difference between them. Under the same main theme, some participants experienced headaches and eye fatigue with 3D vision. With regard to their perception of technical aspects, with 3D glasses, the participants experienced unpleasant sensations and saw darker images. All the participants placed greater value on practicing with 3D than with 2D vision in the VR environment. They believed that VR training should be used in the early years of dental education as an adjunct to the phantom head as it helps students acquire the skills needed by dental professionals.

Robotics In Gynecology- A Review

This review article focuses on the development of robotics-based operations in the medical field especially in gynecology. The goal of the surgical robot is to improve surgical skills and compensate for human limitations. The robot's performance in performing duties correctly and consistently has been the key to its success. Tubal anastomosis was the first gynecologic surgery performed with Robotic assistance in 2000 followed by first Robotic Hysterectomy in 2002. In 2003 Da Vinci surgical system was developed which was FDA approved for gynecological surgery in 2005. It has gained popularity fast and is already playing a big part in many of the places where it is available. It consists of a high-resolution three-dimensional (3D) vision system adjacent to the patient on a cart with robotic branches. It provides unique technical advancement, with tremor filtration, improved ergonomics and lower muscular load as compared to both laparoscopic and open surgeries. Autonomous camera and energy instrument control, wrist articulation with 7 degree freedom, telestration and dual- console capabilities, overcoming the limitations of conventional laparoscopy, such as counterintuitive hand movements, 2 dimensional visualization, limited degree of motion and tremor amplification. Compared to laparoscopy, robotic assistance has a lower conversion rate to open procedures. Endo wrist movement of an automated machine during myomectomy surgery can perform proper and better suturing than traditional laparoscopy. The automated program is a noticeable improvement over laparoscopic surgery and, if price issues are resolved, can gain popularity among gynecological surgeons around the globe. Not unique to robotic system, the integration of indigo cyanine green fluorescence with the Da Vinci robotic system allows identification of lesions, and assessment of perfusion of bowel and ureter during deep infiltrating endometriosis resection.

The value of stereoscopic three-dimensional vision on dental students' performance in a virtual reality simulator.

The aim of this study was to quantitatively investigate the impact of stereoscopic three-dimensional (3D) vision on students' performance when compared with that of two-dimensional (2D) vision in a 3D virtual reality (VR) simulator. Twenty-four dental students (second- and fourth-year BDS) were assigned to perform three operative tasks under 3D and 2D viewing conditions on a Virteasy (HRV) simulator. Groups were crossed over and all students performed the same tasks under the alternate viewing conditions. The performance was evaluated by (1) accuracy, (2) outside target area removal, and (3) tooth cutting time, automatically using the generated feedback. Twenty-one participants completed all sessions. The results revealed a statistically significant effect of 3D vision over 2D vision on students' performance in terms of accuracy (p=0.035). Stereoscopic 3D vision showed significant effect on outside target area removal in the first task (p=0.035). Tooth cutting time was the same under both conditions (p=0.766). The findings revealed improvement in accuracy score and reduction in outside target area removal over the course of the experiment under both conditions. Comparing the difference in 3D effect in the early and advanced learning groups revealed no significant difference among the groups (p>0.05). Utilizing stereoscopic 3D vision in the training session improved students' perception of depth which led to more accurate tooth cutting within the target area, and less outside target area removal. However, 3D shows a limited impact on task completion time.

Robotic versus laparoscopic surgery for colorectal disease: a systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of randomised controlled trials.

Robotic surgery (RS) is gaining prominence in colorectal procedures owing to advantages like three-dimensional vision and enhanced dexterity, particularly in rectal surgery. Although recent reviews report similar outcomes between laparoscopic surgery (LS) and RS, this study investigates the evolving trends in outcomes over time, paralleling the increasing experience in RS. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression were conducted of randomised controlled trials exploring postoperative outcomes in patients undergoing RS or LS for colorectal pathology. The primary outcome measure was postoperative complications. Risk of bias was evaluated using the Cochrane Collaboration's assessment tool. Randomised controlled trials were identified from the PubMed®, Embase® and CINAHL® (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) databases via the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Of 491 articles screened, 13 fulfilled the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis of postoperative complications revealed no significant difference between RS and LS (relative risk [RR]: 0.96, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.79 to 1.18, p=0.72). Meta-regression analysis of postoperative complications demonstrated a significant trend favouring RS over time (yearly change in Ln(RR): -0.0620, 95% CI: -0.1057 to -0.0183, p=0.005). Secondary outcome measures included operative time, length of stay, blood loss, conversion to open surgery, positive circumferential resection margins and lymph nodes retrieved. The only significant findings were shorter operative time favouring LS (mean difference: 41.48 minutes, 95% CI: 22.15 to 60.81 minutes, p<0.001) and fewer conversions favouring RS (RR: 0.57, 95% CI: 0.37 to 0.85, p=0.007). As experience in RS grows, evidence suggests an increasing safety profile for patients. Meta-regression revealed a significant temporal trend with complication rates favouring RS over LS. Heterogeneous reporting of complications hindered subgroup analysis of minor and major complications. LS remains quicker. Rising adoption of RS coupled with emerging evidence is expected to further elucidate its clinical efficacy.

Formation of Three-Dimensional Thinking as one of the Significant Professional Qualities of an Architect

The article touches upon the problems of the professional formation of an architect, the development of his three-dimensional thinking in the process of studying the disciplines of the artistic cycle. The architect's vision must meet the strict requirements imposed by the specifics of visual activity, the laws of figurative literacy and the tasks of a particular stage of work, correlate with the ultimate ideals and purpose of creative activity. In the study of light as a means of artistic expression, an important role must be given to the psychology of the perception of light in nature and in the image. Only having a developed three-dimensional thinking a student can convincingly and accurately convey the character of a three-dimensional shape, its plasticity and movement.The recognition of three-dimensional forms, including natural objects based on three-dimensional vision of images, through an accurate assessment of light and shadow gradations, adequate transfer of color phenomena of reality to the possibilities of the visual sphere and skillful modeling of forms depicted by light and shadow, becomes an emphasis in the training of an architect. The position of color in the image of shapes in space is no less significant.Pedagogical techniques for the formation of three-dimensional thinking of students and the development of their graphic skills in drawing three-dimensional objects, including architectural ones, are based on scientific discoveries of scientists, scientists and artists since the Renaissance.The integrity of perception, attention to detail, the study of space, understanding of form, possession of means of shaping and the image of a three-dimensional object in a two-dimensional format are becoming universal criteria that allow us to talk about the high-quality training of future architects.

Robot-assisted minimally invasive esophagectomy versus minimally invasive esophagectomy for thoracic lymph node dissection in patients with squamous cell carcinoma: a retrospective comparative cohort study.

In Asia, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) accounts for more than 90% of esophageal cancer cases and can be treated with minimally invasive esophagectomy (MIE); however, MIE has certain technical limitations in resecting lymph nodes. The advantages of robot-assisted minimally invasive esophagectomy (RAMIE) surgery, such as the high-definition three-dimensional (3D) vision and the presence of the EndoWrist, facilitates movement in challenging anatomical regions. However, few studies have compared the postoperative outcomes between RAMIE with MIE for the lymph node dissection of patients with ESCC. We identified 285 patients with ESCC who underwent surgical resection between January 2019 and April 2023. Of these patients, 270 met the screening criteria and were enrolled in our study. These patients were then divided into two groups according to the thoracic approach: MIE (n=168) or RAMIE cohort (n=102). The aim of this study was to investigate the possible advantages in terms of postoperative outcomes of RAMIE over MIE for thoracic lymph node dissection. Most patients were male (97.4%). According to the pathological-stage of esophageal cancer, 5 (1.9%), 99 (37.1%), 72 (27.0%), 82 (30.7%), and 9 (3.4%) patients were pathological-stage 0, I, II, III, and IV, respectively. The number of regional lymph node resections in the RAMIE cohort was significantly higher than that in the MIE group for the following regions: the left tracheobronchial lymph nodes (106tbL) (P<0.001), paratracheal lymph nodes [106pre] (P=0.011), the sub-longitudinal lymph nodes [107] (P<0.001), the left main bronchial lymph nodes [109L] (P<0.001), the right main bronchial lymph nodes [109R] (P<0.001), the sub-thoracic periesophageal lymph nodes [110] (P=0.004), and the supradiaphragmatic lymph nodes [111] (P<0.001). By comparing MIE cohort with RAMIE cohort, the transthoracic approach with RAMIE yielded a greater total number of thoracic lymph nodes dissected [MIE: mean 20.82, standard deviation (SD) 9.45; RAMIE: mean 26.07, SD 9.28; P<0.001] and a greater total number of lymph node groups that underwent thoracic lymph node dissection (MIE: mean 5.28, SD 1.94; RAMIE: mean 7.29, SD 1.77; P<0.001). Our study shows that RAMIE may be more effective than MIE in terms of the number thoracic lymph nodes dissected and the extent of dissection. Moreover, RAMIE may be not associated with additional surgical complications.

Surface Reconstruction of the Pediatric Larynx via Structure from Motion Photogrammetry: A Pilot Study.

Endoscopy is the gold standard for characterizing pediatric airway disorders, however, it is limited for quantitative analysis due to lack of three-dimensional (3D) vision and poor stereotactic depth perception. We utilize structure from motion (SfM) photogrammetry, to reconstruct 3D surfaces of pathologic and healthy pediatric larynges from monocular two-dimensional (2D) endoscopy. Models of pediatric subglottic stenosis were 3D printed and airway endoscopies were simulated. 3D surfaces were successfully reconstructed from endoscopic videos of all models using an SfM analysis toolkit. Average subglottic surface error between SfM reconstructed surfaces and 3D printed models was 0.65 mm as measured by Modified Hausdorff Distance. Average volumetric similarity between SfM surfaces and printed models was 0.82 as measured by Jaccard Index. SfM can be used to accurately reconstruct 3D surface renderings of the larynx from 2D endoscopy video. This technique has immense potential for use in quantitative analysis of airway geometry and virtual surgical planning.

ROBOTIC SURGERY – PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

In the quest for progress, humanity has always aimed for ‘faster, higher, stronger’. The modern surgical journey owes much to pioneers like William Halsted and Howard Kelly from Johns Hopkins University. Despite their invasive procedures, they saved countless lives. The next leap in surgery came thanks to German gynecologist Kurt Semm. In September 1980, he performed the first laparoscopic appendectomy. Initially viewed as a charlatan by his colleagues, Semm’s groundbreaking work revolutionized surgical techniques. In the third surgery revolution, a remarkable transformation occurred as minimally invasive endo- scopic procedures became commonplace. A significant breakthrough occurred in 1985 with the introduction of the PUMA 560, the first surgical robot used for brain biopsies. This marked a turning point in the history of surgery, opening up new possibilities and saving countless lives. Before this, surgical robots had been in development for about a decade, thanks to pioneering efforts by NASA and the United States Defense Research Advanced Project Agency (DARPA). These agencies recognized the need for remote-controlled surgery, especially for astronauts and wounded soldiers in combat zones. By the late 1990s, three distinct surgical systems emerged, combining laparoscopic technology with robotic assistance: da Vinci Surgical System, AESOM, and ZEUS Surgical System. The first-ever robotic surgery was a tubal reanastomosis procedure performed in 1996. These advancements marked a paradigm shift, allowing for greater precision, reduced tissue trauma, and improved patient outcomes. Between 2000 and 2003, the author of this presentation had hands-on experience with three different surgical robots. Among them, the da Vinci robot, developed by Intuitive Surgical, stood out. Initially designed for coronary artery bypass procedures, the da Vinci system faced technological challenges in synchronizing the beating heart with visual feedback and surgeon hand movements. However, it found an unexpected niche: prostatectomies. Early Intuitive executives humorously quipped,“We aimed for the heart, but we hit the prostate.”Robotic surgeries are most common in gynecology, where they enhance comfort during longer and more complex procedures. Interestingly, despite its cardiac origins, the da Vinci robot now performs approximately 75% of all prostatectomies worldwide. The global market for surgical robots grew from $800 million in 2015 to a staggering $3.5 billion a decade later. In the United States, a remarkable 78% of surgeons across various specialties express interest in using robotic assistance. Robotic surgery provides several advantages over straight-stick laparoscopy. Surgeons benefit from 7 degrees of freedom and 520° of rotation, along with three-dimensional vision through a high-definition camera. While theoretical improvements in precision exist, studies have not yet fully demonstrated this. Additionally, robotic surgery enables less experienced laparoscopic surgeons to perform complex procedures due to enhanced range of motion and three-dimensional vision. Tremor reduction further allows for precise dissection and suturing. Undoubtedly, the robotic platform significantly enhances surgeon comfort, especially during lengthy and intricate procedures. As artificial intelligence rapidly evolves, so does robotic surgery. While fully autonomous surgery remains a distant goal, certain advancements are imminent. For instance, augmented reality systems – already in use on some platforms – overlay patient images with radiological scans, enhancing safety and precision. Additionally, these systems can be combined with fluorescent imaging. By injecting dyes into the patient, surgeons gain visualization of specific structures such as vessels, ureters, malignant lesions, and sometimes endometriosis. The development of flexible, snake-like robotic arms surpasses the capabilities of current 7-degree-of-freedom instruments. These arms provide enhanced dexterity, allowing precise maneuvers during surgery. The next frontier involves robots performing semi-automated tasks like coagulation or suturing. These capabilities enhance surgical precision and reduce human error. A significant advancement we eagerly anticipate is miniaturization and micro-robotics. Ideally, surgical robots could operate from within the abdominal cavity, eliminating the need for external devices. However, challenges related to signal latency persist. The initial goal of robotic surgery – to enable ground-based surgeons to operate remotely – may remain limited by the time it takes for signals to travel between the surgeon and the robot. Despite the remarkable technological advancements in robotic surgery, the surgeon remains at the helm, overseeing the entire procedure. Surgical robots serve as valuable tools, enhancing precision and capabilities, but the human touch and expertise remain irreplaceable.

The role of Da Vinci Xi robotic simulation curriculum in enhancing skills in robotic colorectal surgery

Robotic surgery in comparison to open and laparoscopic surgery allows better ergonomics, three-dimensional vision, and seven-degree freedom of movement. This ensures fast recovery, fewer postoperative complications, and safe oncological resections. Robotic surgery has revolutionized the field of colorectal surgery, providing surgeons with enhanced precision, dexterity, and visualization. To ensure safe and successful outcomes, surgeons must acquire competency and proficiency in robotic surgical techniques. Robotic simulation exercises have emerged as a valuable tool for training and skill development in robotic colorectal surgery. This research paper explores the importance and relationship between robotic simulation exercises and the acquisition of skills and competency required for carrying out safe colorectal surgery using a robotic platform. The authors discuss the benefits of virtual simulation-based training using the Da Vinci Xi skill simulator, and the evidence supporting its effectiveness in colorectal surgery. In this article, emphasis has been made on some important Da Vinci Xi skill simulator exercises for enhancing skills in robotic colorectal surgery.

Robotic-Assisted Transthoracic Diaphragm Plication

Diaphragm dysfunction, either from congenital eventration or acquired paralysis, impairs the ability of the diaphragm to contract, thereby disrupting normal respiratory mechanics. While a proportion of patients will present with respiratory insufficiency or symptoms of dyspnea, the majority of patients are asymptomatic and most cases are identified incidentally on chest imaging by the presence of an elevated hemidiaphragm. In symptomatic patients, surgical plication of the diaphragm remains the gold standard treatment. Traditionally, diaphragm plication is performed through an open transthoracic approach via a posterolateral thoracotomy. However, more recently there has been increased utilization of minimally invasive techniques, including video-assisted thoracoscopic and laparoscopic approaches. Here, we present our technique for robotic-assisted transthoracic plication, with advantages including enhanced ergonomics, seamless motion, decreased surgeon fatigue, tremor filtering, and three-dimensional vision. This approach has been demonstrated to be a technically feasible and safe option for performing diaphragm plications with an associated decreased hospital length of stay and trend towards decreased 30-day post-operative complications compared to open plication.

Robotic-assisted laparoscopic surgeries in functional and reconstructive urology

The adoption of robotic-assisted laparoscopic surgery in urology is becoming increasingly frequent. Initially, its use was essentially limited to oncological surgery, such as radical prostatectomy. Its success lies in the enhanced dexterity, the three-dimensional vision, and the ability to easily suture intracorporeally. All these advantages have enabled many pioneer surgeons to develop techniques in the field of functional surgery, such as artificial urinary sphincter implantation and sacrocolpopexy, and as for reconstructive surgery, ureteral reconstructions and enterocystoplasties. This article provides a brief yet rich review of the recently innovated techniques and the now minimally invasive feasibility of previously highly complex procedures in conventional laparoscopy.

Tool-free axis calibration method for self-rotating three-dimensional vision systems

Tool-free axis calibration method for self-rotating three-dimensional vision systems

A three-dimensional vision measurement method based on double-line combined structured light

In this paper, a structured light vision measurement method using a scanning laser line and a positioning laser line is proposed. The novel method enables the scanning laser plane to slide along a slide rail while maintaining intersection with the positioning laser plane, eliminating the need to determine the scanning direction and moving step. During the measurement process, the laser plane equations need to be recalibrated for each new position, so a real-time calibration method is given. Initially, the geometric barycenter method is employed to detect the subpixel coordinates of the light stripe intersection point. Subsequently, these coordinates are projected into the camera coordinate system using the initial equations of the positioning laser plane. Finally, leveraging the normal information of the initial equation of the scanning laser plane and the three-dimensional coordinates of the light stripe intersection point, the real-time calibration of the scanning laser plane equations can be accomplished. The proposed method enables the three-dimensional reconstruction of objects, and its accuracy is verified through measurements on gauge blocks. Experimental results demonstrate that this method achieves precise and stable three-dimensional reconstruction of object surface shape.

Two-dimensional vs. three-dimensional vision during the laparoscopic radical prostatectomy: A matched comparison of operative and long-term functional outcomes

Background/Aim: The three-dimensional (3D) display system can solve essential problems in conventional laparoscopic radical prostatectomy (LRP), like depth perception and spatial orientation. Several studies reported initial comparisons of LRP with 2D and 3D vision systems in terms of operative outcomes, with 3D systems coming out on top. However, there are few published comparison studies on the long-term outcomes of LRP with 2D and 3D vision systems. In this regard, we aimed to compare operative and long-term functional results of 3D-High definition (HD) LRP with conventional two-dimensional (2D)-HD display systems. Methods: A total of 115 cases that underwent LRP between October 2010 and December 2016 were prospectively evaluated, and a prospective cohort study was conducted. Inclusion criteria at baseline were as follows: age at surgery &lt;75 yr, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) concentration &lt;20 ng/ml, clinical tumor stage &lt;T4, no diagnosis of metastatic disease, and informed consent to participate in the study. Patients who underwent salvage treatments after LRP and patients with incomplete follow-up were excluded. The patients were divided into groups, Group 1 (n=72) and Group 2 (n=43), according to the display systems used, 2D-HD vs. 3D-HD during LRP. Demographic data, operative and postoperative, and long-term follow-up outcomes were recorded. Additionally, urinary continence rate determined with a patient questionnaire and erectile functions determined with the International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF) questionnaire were recorded. All obtained parameters were compared between the groups using the independent t-test and the chi-square test. Differences were considered significant at two-sided P &lt;0.05 and 95% confidence interval. Results: All patients completed a 24-month follow-up procedure. The groups were similar in age, serum PSA level, prostate volume, preoperative Gleason score, and cancer-positive core number. There were significantly better results in group 2 than in group 1 for operative parameters, catheterization time, and hospital stay (P&lt;0.001, for all parameters). At long-term follow-up, the urinary continence rate was significantly higher in group 2 than in group 1 (P=0.023). Similarly, significantly higher IIEF scores were determined in the group 2 (P&lt;0.001). Conclusion: Our results suggest that using a 3D-HD display system during LRP provides much better long-term functional and operative outcomes and may provide a cheap and equal alternative to the RARP procedure.

ViTScore: a novel three-dimensional Vision Transformer method for accurate prediction of protein-ligand docking poses.

Protein-ligand interactions (PLIs) are essential for cellular activities and drug discovery, and due to the complexity and high cost of experimental methods, there is a great demand for computational approaches, such as protein-ligand docking, to decipher PLI patterns. One of the most challenging aspects of protein-ligand docking is to identify near-native conformations from a set of poses, but traditional scoring functions still have limited accuracy. Therefore, new scoring methods are urgently needed for methodological and/or practical implications. We present a novel deep learning-based scoring function for ranking protein-ligand docking poses based on Vision Transformer (ViT), named ViTScore. To recognize near-native poses from a set of poses, ViTScore voxelizes the protein-ligand interactional pocket into a 3D grid labeled by the occupancy contribution of atoms in different physicochemical classes. This allows ViTScore to capture the subtle differences between spatially and energetically favorable near-native poses and unfavorable non-native poses without needing extra information. After that, ViTScore will output the prediction of the root mean square deviation (rmsd) of a docking pose with reference to the native binding pose. ViTScore is extensively evaluated on diverse test sets including PDBbind2019 and CASF2016, and obtains significant improvements over existing methods in terms of RMSE, R and docking power. Moreover, the results demonstrate that ViTScore is a promising scoring function for protein-ligand docking, and it can be used to accurately identify near-native poses from a set of poses. Furthermore, the results suggest that ViTScore is a powerful tool for protein-ligand docking, and it can be used to accurately identify near-native poses from a set of poses. Additionally, ViTScore can be used to identify potential drug targets and to design new drugs with improved efficacy and safety.

When is a disparity not a disparity? Toward an old theory of three-dimensional vision.

The aims of this paper are twofold: first, to discuss and analyze the concept of binocular disparity and second, to contrast the traditional "air theory" of three-dimensional vision with the much older "ground theory," first suggested by Ibn al-Haytham more than a thousand years ago. The origins of an "air theory" of perception can be traced back to Descartes and subsequently to the philosopher George Berkeley, who claimed that distance "could not be seen" because points lying along the same line of sight (in an empty space) would all project to the same location on the retina. However, Descartes was also aware that the angle of convergence of the two eyes could solve the problem of the "missing" information for the monocular observer and, since then, most visual scientists have assumed that eye vergence plays an important role both in judging absolute distance and for scaling retinal size and binocular disparities. In contrast, al-Haytham's and Gibson's "ground theories," which are based on the geometry of the textured ground plane surface that has surrounded us throughout evolution and during our lifetimes, are not just more ecologically based but they also obviate the need for disparity scaling.

Multi-view convolutional vision transformer for 3D object recognition

With the rapid development of three-dimensional (3D) vision technology and the increasing application of 3D objects, there is an urgent need for 3D object recognition in the fields of computer vision, virtual reality, and artificial intelligence robots. The view-based method projects 3D objects into two-dimensional (2D) images from different viewpoints and applies convolutional neural networks (CNN) to model the projected views. Although these methods have achieved excellent recognition performance, there is not sufficient information interaction between the features of different views in these methods. Inspired by the recent success achieved by vision transformer (ViT) in image recognition, we propose a hybrid network by taking advantage of CNN to extract multi-scale local information of each view, and of transformer to capture the relevance of multi-scale information between different views. To verify the effectiveness of our multi-view convolutional vision transformer (MVCVT), we conduct experiments on two public benchmarks, ModelNet40 and ModelNet10, and compare with those of some state-of-the-art methods. The final results show that MVCVT has competitive performance in 3D object recognition.

Novel silicone elastomer contact lenses designed for simultaneous viewing of distance and near eye displays

SignificanceAs technology advances, there is a need for a safe and well-fitting contact lens that can be utilized to carry embedded components without concerns of decreasing oxygen permeability to the eye. PurposeThe purpose of this study was to assess fitting characteristics, vision and performance of a novel ultra-high Dk silicone elastomer contact lens having a fully encapsulated two-state polarizing filter and a high-powered central lenslet that allows viewing at distance and viewing of a near eye display, while managing the concomitant high water vapor permeability of the material. Methods15 participants were fit with the silicone elastomer study lenses. Biomicroscopy was conducted before and after lens wear. Visual acuity with manifest refraction and visual acuity with an over-refraction while wearing the plano-powered study lenses were measured. Participants wore spectacles with micro-displays at the focal length of the lenslet on each eye. Lens fit was assessed including ease of lens removal. Subjective assessments of viewing the micro-displays were completed on a 1(unable) to 10(immediate/profound/stable) scale. ResultsBiomicroscopy revealed no eyes had moderate or severe corneal staining after study lens wear. Mean (±standard deviation) LogMAR acuity for all eyes was −0.13(0.08) with best corrected refraction and −0.03(0.06) with the study lenses and over-refraction. Mean spherical equivalent of the manifest refraction for both eyes was −3.12 D and was −2.75 D over the plano study lenses. Subjective assessments revealed a mean score of 7.67(1.91) for ease of obtaining fusion; 8.47(1.30) for ease of observing three-dimensional vision, and 8.27(1.49) for stability of the fused binocular display vision. ConclusionThe silicone elastomer study lenses with a two-state polarizing filter and central lenslet allow for vision at distance and on spectacle mounted micro-displays.