Three-dimensional Ultrasound Data Research Articles

Toward assessment of rupture risk predictors in abdominal aortic aneurysms including intraluminal thrombus based on 3D+t ultrasound images

Image-based patient-specific rupture risk analysis for abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) has shown considerable promise. However, clinical translation has been hampered by the use of invasive and costly imaging modalities. Despite being a promising alternative, ultrasound (US) makes a full analysis, including intraluminal thrombus (ILT), not trivial. This study explored the feasibility of assessing AAA rupture risk parameters, e.g., peak wall stress (PWS) and peak wall rupture index (PWRI), using US-based models of the AAA wall, finally including ILT. Three-dimensional US data were segmented from a group of AAA patients whose CT data were available within 30 days. The segmented vessel wall and ILT boundaries were converted into a mesh including and excluding ILT to evaluate the effect of adding ILT on the model output. US-based rupture risk parameters (PWS and PWRI) were compared to CT-based results. The US-based PWS and PWRI, including ILT, showed good agreement with CT-based results, and the model excluding ILT showed no significant bias in wall stress or rupture index. When including ILT, a lower US-based wall stress and rupture index of 7.2% and 3.8% were found, respectively. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of PWS was 0.60. The highest ICC was found for the PWRI (ICC = 0.86), indicating good absolute agreement. This study showed that PWRI can be estimated with US when including the ILT, yielding comparable results to CT, and good absolute agreement. Future work should focus on improving the contrast of ILT in US, since this will be essential to performing large-scale studies in AAA cohorts.

An effective ultrasound fetal palate screening software based on the “sequential sector scan through the oral fissure” and three-dimensional ultrasound

BackgroundOrofacial clefts are one of the most common congenital malformations of the fetal face and ultrasound is mainly responsible for its diagnosis. It is difficult to view the fetal palate, so there is currently no unified standard for fetal palate screening, and the diagnosis of cleft palate is not included in the relevant prenatal ultrasound screening guidelines. Many prenatal diagnoses for cleft palate are missed due to the lack of effective screening methods. Therefore, it is imperative to increase the display rate of the fetal palate, which would improve the detection rate and diagnostic accuracy for cleft palate. We aim to introduce a fetal palate screening software based on the “sequential sector scan though the oral fissure”, an effective method for fetal palate screening which was verified by our follow up results and three-dimensional ultrasound and to evaluate its feasibility and clinical practicability.MethodsA software was designed and programmed based on “sequential sector scan through the oral fissure” and three-dimensional ultrasound. The three-dimensional ultrasound volume data of the fetal face were imported into the software. Then, the median sagittal plane was taken as the reference interface, the anterior upper margin of the mandibular alveolar bone was selected as the fulcrum, the interval angles, and the number of layers of the sector scan were set, after which the automatic scan was performed. Thus, the sector scan sequential planes of the mandibular alveolar bone, pharynx, soft palate, hard palate, and maxillary alveolar bone were obtained in sequence to display and evaluate the palate. In addition, the feasibility and accuracy of the software in fetal palate displaying and screening was evaluated by actual clinical cases.ResultsFull views of the normal fetal palates and the defective parts of the cleft palates were displayed, and relatively clear sequential tomographic images and continuous dynamic videos were formed after the three-dimensional volume data of 10 normal fetal palates and 10 cleft palates were imported into the software.ConclusionsThe software can display fetal palates more directly which might allow for a new method of fetal palate screening and cleft palate diagnosis.

Ultrasound-Based Fluid-Structure Interaction Modeling of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms Incorporating Pre-stress.

Currently, the prediction of rupture risk in abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAAs) solely relies on maximum diameter. However, wall mechanics and hemodynamics have shown to provide better risk indicators. Patient-specific fluid-structure interaction (FSI) simulations based on a non-invasive image modality are required to establish a patient-specific risk indicator. In this study, a robust framework to execute FSI simulations based on time-resolved three-dimensional ultrasound (3D+t US) data was obtained and employed on a data set of 30 AAA patients. Furthermore, the effect of including a pre-stress estimation (PSE) to obtain the stresses present in the measured geometry was evaluated. The established workflow uses the patient-specific 3D+t US-based segmentation and brachial blood pressure as input to generate meshes and boundary conditions for the FSI simulations. The 3D+t US-based FSI framework was successfully employed on an extensive set of AAA patient data. Omitting the pre-stress results in increased displacements, decreased wall stresses, and deviating time-averaged wall shear stress and oscillatory shear index patterns. These results underline the importance of incorporating pre-stress in FSI simulations. After validation, the presented framework provides an important tool for personalized modeling and longitudinal studies on AAA growth and rupture risk.

Three-dimensional ultrasound diagnosis of T-shaped uterus is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes after embryo transfer.

Is T-shaped uterine cavity morphology associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes after transfer of a single thawed euploid blastocyst? In this secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study, 648 patients with three-dimensional ultrasound (3D-US) data obtained on the day before embryo transfer were categorized into three groups according to uterine cavity morphology: normal (n = 472), intermediate (n = 166) and T-shaped (n = 10). Quantitative uterine cavity dimensions were used to evaluate uterine cavity morphology. Pregnancy outcomes, including live birth, clinical miscarriage and ectopic pregnancy, were compared among the groups. The prevalence of a T-shaped uterus in this cohort was 1.5%. Uterine cavity morphology was strongly associated with the ratio of interostial distance and isthmic diameter (P < 0.01). Live birth rates were 66.5% for normal, 65.7% for intermediate and 40.0% for T-shaped cavity morphology. Women with a T-shaped uterus had an increased risk of clinical miscarriage (40.0% versus 7.0% for normal and 9.0% for intermediate cavity morphology, P < 0.01) and ectopic pregnancy (10.0% versus 1.1% for normal and 1.9% for intermediate cavity morphology, P = 0.05). When evaluating interostial distance and isthmic diameter ratio to determine pregnancy outcomes, a cut-off value of 2 was noted to have weak predictive value for live birth, but not clinical miscarriage or ectopic pregnancy. T-shaped uterine cavity morphology is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes after transfer of a single thawed euploid blastocyst. Given the low prevalence of this condition, quantifying the magnitude of risk will require a larger cohort of patients.

3-D Strain Imaging of the Carotid Bifurcation: Methods and in-Human Feasibility

Atherosclerotic plaque development in the carotid artery bifurcation elevates the risk for stroke, which is often initiated by plaque rupture. The risk-to-rupture of a plaque is related to its composition. Two-dimensional non-invasive carotid elastography studies have found a correlation between wall strain and plaque composition. This study introduces a technique to perform non-invasive volumetric elastography in vivo. Three-dimensional ultrasound data of carotid artery bifurcations were acquired in four asymptomatic individuals using an electrocardiogram-triggered multislice acquisition device that scanned over a length of 35 mm (350 slices) using a linear transducer (L11-3, fc = 9 MHz). For each slice, three-angle ultrasound plane wave data were acquired and beamformed. A correction for breathing-induced motion was applied to spatially align the slices, enabling 3-D cross-correlation-based compound displacement, distensibility and strain estimation. Distensibility values matched with previously published values, while the corresponding volumetric principal strain maps revealed locally elevated compressive and tensile strains. This study presents for the first time 3-D elastography of carotid arteries in vivo.

Does the father matter? The association between the periconceptional paternal folate status and embryonic growth

To study the association between periconceptional paternal folate status and embryonic growth trajectories in early pregnancy. Prospective periconceptional cohort study. Single tertiary hospital. A total of 511 singleton pregnancies, with 303 conceived spontaneously and 208 after invitro fertilization (IVF) or intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) treatment. None. Crown-rump length (CRL) and embryonic volume (EV) at 7, 9, and 11weeks of gestation measured offline using three-dimensional ultrasound data and a virtual reality system. Using the third quartile of paternal red blood cell (RBC) folate levels as reference values, we found statistically significantly negative associations between RBC folate and longitudinal CRL measurements in the second quartile (beta: -0.14 √mm [95% confidence interval (CI), -0.28 to -0.006]) and fourth quartile (beta: -0.19 √mm [95% CI, -0.33 to -0.04]) in spontaneously conceived pregnancies. Comparable results were found for longitudinal EV measurements in the fourth quartile (beta: -0.12 ∛cm3 [95% CI, -0.20 to -0.05]). No statistically significant associations were observed between RBC folate levels and embryonic growth trajectories in IVF-ICSI pregnancies. These data demonstrate for the first time that low and high periconceptional paternal RBC folate levels are associated with reduced embryonic growth trajectories in spontaneously conceived pregnancies. These data underline the importance of paternal folate status during the periconception period.

HeartBEATS: A hybrid energy approach for real-time B-spline explicit active tracking of surfaces

In this manuscript a novel method is presented for left ventricle (LV) tracking in three-dimensional ultrasound data using a hybrid approach combining segmentation and tracking-based clues. This is accomplished by coupling an affine motion model to an existing LV segmentation framework and introducing an energy term that penalizes the deviation to the affine motion estimated using a global Lucas–Kanade algorithm. The hybrid nature of the proposed solution can be seen as using the estimated affine motion to enhance the temporal coherence of the segmented surfaces, by enforcing the tracking of consistent patterns, while the underlying segmentation algorithm allows to locally refine the estimated global motion. The proposed method was tested on a dataset composed of 24 4D ultrasound sequences from both healthy volunteers and diseased patients. The proposed hybrid tracking platform offers a competitive solution for fast assessment of relevant LV volumetric indices, by combining the robustness of affine motion tracking with the low computational burden of the underlying segmentation algorithm.

The diagnostic value of transvaginal three-dimensional ultrasound for uterine cavity lesions

Objective To evaluate the value of transvaginal three-dimensional ultrasound(3D-TVS) in the diagnosis of uterine cavity lesions. Methods 100 patients with suspected uterine cavity lesions, firstly underwent transvaginal ultrasound examination, then underwent transvaginal three-dimensional ultrasonography, and the transvaginal ultrasound and transvaginal three-dimensional ultrasound examination was judged by hysteroscopy standard.The diagnostic methods and hysteroscopy examination results of the two groups were compared and analyzed, and the three-dimensional ultrasound imaging data were analyzed. Results The ultrasound findings of transvaginal two-dimensional showed that there were 91 cases in line with hysteroscopy(lesion 142), the accuracy was 64.54%, the differences were statistically significant(χ2=4.872, 4.913, 8.198, 13.254, 10.137, all P<0.05). At the same time, the three-dimensional ultrasound examination results of vaginal showed consistent with hysteroscopy 132, the accuracy was 93.62%, the differences were statistically significant(χ2=2.872, 7.387, 10.258, 18.275, 12.259, all P<0.05). Transvaginal three dimensional ultrasound examination of common uterine cavity lesions ultrasound image was clear, and the size, shape and location of the lesion were clearly visible. Conclusion Three dimensional ultrasound in the diagnosis of uterine cavity lesions has high accuracy, its image data is more clear, and in the clinical diagnosis of uterine cavity lesions has high value of application, and it is worth of promoting. Key words: Ultrasonography; Uterine diseases; Diagnosis

Three-dimensional ultrasound in evaluation of fetal brain anomalies

Background and objective: Prenatal diagnosis of central nervous system anomalies by two-dimensional sonography is challenging because of difficulties in obtaining complete visualization of the fetal brain during routine examinations. Three-dimensional sonography has been introduced as a tool for studying the fetal central nervous system because of its ability to facilitate examinations of the fetal brain. This study aimed to visualize an intracranial structure of the fetal central nervous system anomaly using transabdominal three-dimensional sonography. Methods: A prospective cross–sectional (observational) study in which three-dimensional ultrasound examination was performed in 82 patients between 12 and 38 weeks of gestation suspected to have fetal brain malformation detected by conventional two-dimensional ultrasound. Each anomaly was reviewed again to determine whether three-dimensional ultrasound data were advantageous compared to two-dimensional ultrasound. Results: Three-dimensional images provided additional information in 43 (52.4%) of cases including extracerebral anomalies. The three-dimensional ultrasound was advantageous in evaluating the encephaloceles (10 of 43 cases) in that the exact location of the extracranial mass and the amount of extracranial tissue in the encephalocele was better defined with the simultaneous display of three orthogonal planes images that could not be obtained with two-dimensional ultrasound were seen with three-dimensional ultrasound. Conclusion: Three-dimensional ultrasound is an excellent adjunctive tool to two-dimensional ultrasound in the evaluation of fetal anomalies

A Hessian plate filter and shape feature-based approach to automatically localizing the NT VOI of 3D ultrasound data

The thickness of nuchal translucency (NT) is one of the most important parameters to be detected in prenatal screening during the first trimester of pregnancy. In this paper, an automatic method is proposed for the localization of the volume of interest (VOI) of NT in three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound data. With the size and position of the fetal head and the equation of the sagittal plane in the 3D ultrasound data as the prior knowledge, the method can be divided into three steps. First, a Hessian-based plate filter is proposed to enhance the possible plates in the volume. Second, several VOIs with large filter responses are selected as candidates. Those VOIs consisting of several connected planes are segmented according to the prior knowledge of the sagittal plane. Third, a set of shape features is proposed to select the NT VOI with the maximum probability. Automatic fetal head localization and sagittal plane detection can be achieved using our previously proposed methodology, which means fully automatic NT volume detection could be reached by using our method. The proposed method produces 86.36% localization accuracy with the manual selection as the ground truth.

An accurate and effective FMM-based approach for freehand 3D ultrasound reconstruction

Freehand three-dimensional ultrasound imaging is a highly attractive research area because it is capable of volumetric visualization and analysis of tissues and organs. The reconstruction algorithm plays a key role to the construction of three-dimensional ultrasound volume data with higher image quality and faster reconstruction speed. However, a systematic approach to such problem is still missing. A new fast marching method (FMM) for three-dimensional ultrasound volume reconstruction using the tracked and hand-held probe is proposed in this paper. Our reconstruction approach consists of two stages: bin-filling stage and hole-filling stage. Each pixel in the B-scan images is traversed and its intensity value is assigned to its nearest voxel in the bin-filling stage. For the efficient and accurate reconstruction, we present a new hole-filling algorithm based on the fast marching method. Our algorithm advances the interpolation boundary along its normal direction and fills the area closest to known voxel points in first, which ensure that the structural details of image can be preserved. Experimental results on both ultrasonic abdominal phantom and in vivo urinary bladder of human subject and comparisons with some popular algorithms are used to demonstrate its improvement in both reconstruction accuracy and efficiency.

Registration of 3D Ultrasound Through an Air–Tissue Boundary

In this study we evaluated a new method for registering three-dimensional ultrasound (3DUS) data to external coordinate systems. First, 3DUS was registered to the stereo endoscope of a da Vinci Surgical System by placing a registration tool against an air-tissue boundary so that the 3DUS could image ultrasound fiducials while the stereo endoscope could image camera markers on the same tool. The common points were used to solve the registration between the 3DUS and camera coordinate systems. The target registration error (TRE) when imaging through a PVC tissue phantom ranged from 3.85 1.76 mm to 1.82 1.03 mm using one to four registration tool positions. TRE when imaging through an ex-vivo liver tissue sample ranged from 2.36 1.01 mm to 1.51 0.70 mm using one to four registration tool positions. Second, using a similar method, 3DUS was registered to the kinematic coordinate system of a da Vinci Surgical System by using the da Vinci surgical manipulators to identify common points on an air-tissue boundary. TRE when imaging through a PVC tissue phantom was 0.95 0.38 mm. This registration method is simpler and potentially more accurate than methods using commercial motion tracking systems. This method may be useful in the future in augmented reality systems for laparoscopic and robotic-assisted surgery.

3D ultrasound DICOM data of the thyroid gland

SummaryPurpose: It has recently become possible to generate and archive three-dimensional ultrasound (3D-US) volume data with the DICOM standard Enhanced Ultrasound Volume Storage (EUVS). The objective of this study was to examine the application of the EUVS standard based on the example of thyroid ultrasound. Patients, methods: 32 patients, who were referred for thyroid diagnosis, were given a 3D-US examination of the thyroid gland (GE Voluson E8, convex 3D probe RAB4–8-D). The 3D data sets were exported to EUVS. Necessary additions to DICOM entries and transformation into an established DICOM standard were carried out. The visual assessment and volume measurements were performed by two experts on nuclear medicine using standard software in our hospital. Results: In 24/32 (75%) of the patients, the whole organ was successfully recorded in a single 3D scan; in 8/32 (25%), only part of organ could be covered. In all cases, 3D-US data could be exported and archived. After supplementing the DICOM entry Patient Orientation and transformation into the DICOM PET format, 3D-US data could be displayed in the correct orientation and size at any viewing workstation and any web browser-based PACS viewer. Afterwards, 3D processing such as multiplanar reformation, volumetric measurements and image fusion with data of other cross sectional modalities could be performed. The intraclass correlation of the volume measurements was 0,94 and the interobserver variability was 5.7%. Conclusion: EUVS allows the generation, distribution and archiving of 3D-US data of the thyroid, facilitates a second reading by another physician and creates conditions for advanced 3D processing using routine software

Advantages and disadvantages of 3D ultrasound of thyroid nodules including thin slice volume rendering

BackgroundThe purpose of this study was to assess the advantages and disadvantages of 3D gray-scale and power Doppler ultrasound, including thin slice volume rendering (TSVR), applied for evaluation of thyroid nodules.MethodsThe retrospective evaluation by two observers of volumes of 71 thyroid nodules (55 benign, 16 cancers) was performed using a new TSVR technique. Dedicated 4D ultrasound scanner with an automatic 6-12 MHz 4D probe was used. Statistical analysis was performed with Stata v. 8.2.ResultsMultiple logistic regression analysis demonstrated that independent risk factors of thyroid cancers identified by 3D ultrasound include: (a) ill-defined borders of the nodule on MPR presentation, (b) a lobulated shape of the nodule in the c-plane and (c) a density of central vessels in the nodule within the minimal or maximal ranges. Combination of features provided sensitivity 100% and specificity 60-69% for thyroid cancer.Calcification/microcalcification-like echogenic foci on 3D ultrasound proved not to be a risk factor of thyroid cancer.Storage of the 3D data of the whole nodules enabled subsequent evaluation of new parameters and with new rendering algorithms.ConclusionsOur results indicate that 3D ultrasound is a practical and reproducible method for the evaluation of thyroid nodules. 3D ultrasound stores volumes comprising the whole lesion or organ. Future detailed evaluations of the data are possible, looking for features that were not fully appreciated at the time of collection or applying new algorithms for volume rendering in order to gain important information. Three-dimensional ultrasound data could be included in thyroid cancer databases. Further multicenter large scale studies are warranted.

Three-Dimensional High-Frequency Characterization of Cancerous Lymph Nodes

High-frequency ultrasound (HFU) offers a means of investigating biologic tissue at the microscopic level. High-frequency, three-dimensional (3-D) quantitative-ultrasound (QUS) methods were developed to characterize freshly-dissected lymph nodes of cancer patients. Three-dimensional ultrasound data were acquired from lymph nodes using a 25.6-MHz center-frequency transducer. Each node was inked prior to tissue fixation to recover orientation after sectioning for 3-D histologic evaluation. Backscattered echo signals were processed using 3-D cylindrical regions-of-interest to yield four QUS estimates associated with tissue microstructure ( i.e., effective scatterer size, acoustic concentration, intercept and slope). QUS estimates were computed following established methods using two scattering models. In this study, 46 lymph nodes acquired from 27 patients diagnosed with colon cancer were processed. Results revealed that fully-metastatic nodes could be perfectly differentiated from cancer-free nodes using slope or scatterer-size estimates. Specifically, results indicated that metastatic nodes had an average effective scatterer size ( i.e., 37.1 ± 1.7 μm) significantly larger ( p < 0.05) than that in cancer-free nodes ( i.e., 26 ± 3.3 μm). Therefore, the 3-D QUS methods could provide a useful means of identifying small metastatic foci in dissected lymph nodes that might not be detectable using current standard pathology procedures. (E-mail: mamou@rrinyc.org)

Reference intervals of gestational sac, yolk sac and embryo volumes using three‐dimensional ultrasound

To create reference intervals of gestational sac volume (GSV), yolk sac volume (YSV), embryo volume (EV), crown-rump length (CRL) and gestational sac diameter (GSD) in the first trimester of pregnancy using three-dimensional ultrasound. Women in the first trimester of pregnancy were invited to participate in the study. Inclusion criteria were well-established dates, and that the women were non-smokers and healthy, without any medical disorders. Three-dimensional ultrasound volumetric data (GSV, YSV, EV) were collected together with standard two-dimensional measurements of CRL and GSD. For each measurement separate regression models were fitted to estimate the mean and SD at each gestational age. The 5(th), 50(th) and 95(th) centiles were derived using a combination of these regression models. One hundred and sixty-six women at between 6 and 12 weeks' gestation were scanned once. The mean ( +/- SD) maternal age was 29.4 ( +/- 5) years. There were no miscarriages and no congenital abnormalities were noted. Mean gestational age at delivery was 39.3 ( +/- 1.4) weeks and mean birth weight was 3.3 ( +/- 0.4) kg. The CRL centiles fitted a cubic model and the GSD centiles fitted a linear model. The centiles for YSV fitted a quadratic model on the modified log-transformed data. The centiles for GSV and EV were modeled using quantile regression. Reference intervals and centile charts for first-trimester GSV, YSV and EV have been created in addition to CRL and GSD using rigorous methodology.

High-Frequency Quantitative Ultrasound Imaging of Cancerous Lymph Nodes

High-frequency ultrasound (HFU) offers a means of investigating biological tissue at the microscopic level. High-frequency, quantitative-ultrasound (QUS) methods were developed to characterize freshly-dissected lymph nodes of cancer patients. Three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound data were acquired from lymph nodes using a 25.6-MHz center-frequency transducer. Each node was inked prior to 3D histological fixation to recover orientation after sectioning. Backscattered echo signals were processed to yield two QUS estimates associated with tissue microstructure: scatterer size and acoustic concentration. The QUS estimates were computed following established methods using a Gaussian scattering model. Four lymph nodes from a patient with stage-3 colon cancer were evaluated as an illustrative case. QUS images were generated for this patient by expressing QUS estimates as color-encoded pixels and overlaying them on conventional gray-scale B-mode images. The single metastatic node had an average scatterer size that was significantly larger than the average scatterer size of the other nodes, and the statistics of both QUS estimates in the metastatic node showed greater variance than the statistics of the other nodes. Results indicate that the methods may provide a useful means of identifying small metastatic foci in dissected lymph nodes that might not be detectable using current standard pathology procedures.

Upgrade of an optical navigation system with a permanent electromagnetic position control

The main problems of navigation in liver surgery are organ movement and deformation. With a combination of direct optical and indirect electromagnetic tracking technology, visualisation and positional control of surgical instruments within three-dimensional ultrasound data and registration of organ movements can be realised simultaneously. Surgical instruments for liver resection were localised with an infrared-based navigation system (Polaris). Movements of the organ itself were registered using an electromagnetic navigation system (Aurora). The combination of these two navigation techniques and a new surgical navigation procedure focussed on a circumscribed critical dissection area were applied for the first time in liver resections. This new technique was effectively implemented. The position of the surgical instrument was localised continuously. Repeated position control with observation of the navigation screen was not necessary. During surgical resection, a sonic warning signal was activated when the surgical instrument entered a "no touch" area--an area of reduced safety margin. Optical tracking of surgical instruments and simultaneous electromagnetic registration of organ position is feasible in liver resection.

A new adaptive interpolation algorithm for 3D ultrasound imaging with speckle reduction and edge preservation

Conventional interpolation algorithms for reconstructing freehand three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound data always contain speckle noises and artifacts. This paper describes a new algorithm for reconstructing regular voxel arrays with reduced speckles and preserved edges. To study speckle statistics properties including mean and variance in sequential B-mode images in 3D space, experiments were conducted on an ultrasound resolution phantom and real human tissues. In the volume reconstruction, the homogeneity of the neighborhood for each voxel was evaluated according to the local variance/mean of neighboring pixels. If a voxel was locating in a homogeneous region, its neighboring pixels were averaged as the interpolation output. Otherwise, the size of the voxel neighborhood was contracted and the ratio was re-calculated. If its neighborhood was deemed as an inhomogeneous region, the voxel value was calculated using an adaptive Gaussian distance weighted method with respect to the local statistics. A novel method was proposed to reconstruct volume data set with economical usage of memory. Preliminary results obtained from the phantom and a subject's forearm demonstrated that the proposed algorithm was able to well suppress speckles and preserve edges in 3D images. We expect that this study can provide a useful imaging tool for clinical applications using 3D ultrasound.

Volume Segmentation and Reconstruction from Freehand Three-Dimensional Ultrasound Data with Application to Ovarian Follicle Measurement

This article presents a semi-automatic method for segmentation and reconstruction of freehand three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound data. The method incorporates a number of interesting features within the level-set framework: First, segmentation is carried out using region competition, requiring multiple distinct and competing regions to be encoded within the framework. This region competition uses a simple dot-product based similarity measure to compare intensities within each region. In addition, segmentation and surface reconstruction is performed within the 3D domain to take advantage of the additional spatial information available. This means that the method must interpolate the surface where there are gaps in the data, a feature common to freehand 3D ultrasound reconstruction. Finally, although the level-set method is restricted to a voxel grid, no assumption is made that the data being segmented will conform to this grid and may be segmented in its world-reference position. The volume reconstruction method is demonstrated in vivo for the volume measurement of ovarian follicles. The 3D reconstructions produce a lower error variance than the current clinical measurement based on a mean diameter estimated from two-dimensional (2D) images. However, both the clinical measurement and the semi-automatic method appear to underestimate the true follicular volume. (E-mail: gooding@robots.ox.ac.uk)