Three-dimensional Orthogonal Woven Research Articles

Multi-scale collaborative design method for macroscopic thermal optimization and mesoscopic woven structure of hypersonic vehicle’s TOCMC leading edge

A new thermal protection design method for hypersonic vehicle’s leading edge is proposed, which can effectively reduce temperature of the leading edge without additional cooling measures. This method reduces the leading-edge’s temperature by the multi-scale collaborative design of the macroscopic thermal optimization and the mesoscopic woven structures of Three-dimensional Orthogonal Woven Ceramic Matrix Composites (TOCMC). The macroscopic thermal optimization is achieved by designing different mesoscopic woven structures in different regions to create combined heat transfer channels to dredge the heat. The combined heat transfer channel is macroscopically represented by the anisotropic thermal conductivity of TOCMC. The thermal optimization multiple linear regression model is established to optimize the heat transport channel, which predicts Theoretical Optimal Thermal Conductivity Configuration (TOTCC) in different regions to achieve the lowest leading-edge temperature. The function-oriented mesostructure design method is invented to design the corresponding mesostructure of TOCMC according to the TOTCC, which consists of universal thermal conductivity prediction formulas for TOCMC. These universal formulas are firstly derived based on the thermal resistance network method, which is verified by experiments with an error of 6.25%. The results show that the collaborative design method can effectively reduce the leading edge temperature by about 12.8% without adding cooling measures.

Numerical simulation of tensile, flexural, and impact behavior of three dimensional orthogonal hybrid jute/HTPET woven fabric composites

3D textile reinforced composites have some advantages over common 2D composites due to their unique mechanical properties. In this research, five composite samples with different percentages of jute and high tenacity polyethylene terephthalate fibers in the form of three-dimensional orthogonal woven fabrics were designed by TexGen software in meso and macro scales, and their tensile, flexural, and impact behaviors were analyzed by the finite element method in Abaqus software. The results were in good agreement with the experimental results. The mean errors between experimental and numerical results were 11% for tensile strain, 9% for tensile strength, 8% for Young’s modulus, 9.8% for tensile toughness, 6% for elastic flexural energy, 5.7% for flexural modulus, and 19.8% for impact resistance.

Investigation on the anti-penetration performance of UD - three-dimensional orthogonal woven fabric composite reinforced structure

Investigation on the anti-penetration performance of UD - three-dimensional orthogonal woven fabric composite reinforced structure

Evaluation of multi-directional compression behaviors and failure of three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites via liquid nitrogen temperature

Three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites (3DOWCs) are extensively employed in structural engineering applications for their lightweight, high designability, and excellent interlayer performances. This work constructed two 3DOWCs with different fiber volume contents, and their multi-directional compression properties and damage mechanisms at room and liquid nitrogen temperatures (RT and LNT) were thoroughly investigated and evaluated. Temperatures, fiber volume contents, and loading directions all had a significant influence on behaviors. The stress-strain curves presented ductility at RT and gradually decreased after reaching the maximum load, whereas they were brittle and rapidly decreased at LNT. Compared to the compression properties at RT, the compression strength of 3DOWC40-LNT and 3DOWC50-LNT increased by 22.6% and 9.3% in the warp direction, 11.8% and 29.0% in the weft direction, as well as 32.9% and 24.6% in the Z direction. Additionally, edge yarn stripping and shear cracking were the primary fracture patterns for 3DOWCs under RT, while they exhibited interface layering, yarn fracture, shear cracking, and interfacial debonding at LNT, especially the deformation along the warp direction was more pronounced under Z direction compression.

Multiscale damage modelling of notched and un-notched 3D woven composites with randomly distributed manufacturing defects

This work proposes a stochastic multiscale computational framework for damage modelling in 3D woven composite laminates, by considering the random distribution of manufacturing-induced imperfections. The proposed method is demonstrated to be accurate, while being simple to implement and requiring modest computational resources. In this approach, a limited number of cross-sectional views obtained from micro-computed tomography (µCT) are used to obtain the stochastic distribution of two key manufacturing-induced defects, namely waviness and voids. This distribution is fed into a multiscale progressive damage model to predict the damage response of three-dimensional (3D) orthogonal woven composites. The accuracy of the proposed model was demonstrated by performing a series of finite element simulations of the un-notched and notched tensile tests (having two different hole sizes) for resin-infused thermoplastic (Elium®) 3D woven composites. Excellent correlation was achieved between experiments and the stochastic finite element simulations. This demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed stochastic multiscale model. The model successfully captured the stochastic nature of tensile responses (ultimate tensile strength and stiffness), damage modes (matrix damage and fibre failure), and initiation and propagation of transverse cracks in thermoplastic 3D woven composites, consistent with experimental observation. The stochastic computational framework presented in this paper can be used to guide the design and optimization of 3D textile composite structures.

Three-dimensional orthogonal woven hybrid fabrics in X band frequency region for electromagnetic shielding effectiveness

The three-dimensional fabric structures with metallic yarns and different fibers offer additional opportunities to enhance the electromagnetic shielding potential. This study involves the manufacturing of a Three-Dimensional Orthogonal Woven (3DOW) hybrid conductive fabric to be potentially used in an electromagnetic shielding field. 3DOW fabric consisting of copper filament-based core-sheath hybrid yarn in the weft direction has been manufactured to obtain maximum shielding effect. Hybrid yarns were produced using the DREF-III spinning technique, having copper filament in the core and sheathing by Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS) staple fibers. The experiment was designed using Box-Behnken method. The orthogonal fabric samples are tested in an electromagnetic frequency region of 8-12 GHz using Free Space Measurement System (FSMS) to estimate absorbance, reflectance, and transmittance. Hybrid yarn parameters such as PPS fiber diameter, copper filament diameter, and yarn linear density considerably affect electromagnetic shielding. 3DOW fabric’s electromagnetic shielding effect increase with the diameter of the copper core filament, as does PPS yarn’s diameter, showing a promising trend towards shielding. The findings of orthogonal structure can be further extended in other Three-Dimensional structures like multi-layer, angle interlock, draperies, and tops for civilians and soldierly applications.

The through-thickness thermal conductivity and heat transport mechanism of carbon fiber three-dimensional orthogonal woven fabric composite

This paper successfully constructed a high through-thickness thermal conductivity carbon fiber composite with three-dimensional orthogonal woven fabric (3DOWF) by taking advantage of the high conductivity of carbon fiber. The effect of structural parameters and Z-direction bundling yarn (Z-yarn) on thermal conductivity (TC) was investigated, and thermal transport mechanism was analyzed. The results show that the TC in the through-thickness direction of 3DOWFs increase dramatically after adding Z-yarn structure, reaching up to 4.12 W/m/K, which is 116% higher than the laminated sample. A plane heat source was established to record the temperature-time curves of the composites, and results show that the composites with higher TC have faster equilibrium time and higher equilibrium temperature. Infrared thermography demonstrates the difference of thermal response process between 3DOWF and laminated material. To sum up, a large amount of heat energy can be transferred rapidly from hot surface to cold one through these Z-yarn paths in the thermal conductive network of 3DOWF, which has potential application in composite with high thermal conductivity.

CCCs off-axial orientation sensitivity analysis in hole pin-bearing failure via hierarchical multiscale simulation framework

In current investigation, a sequential multiscale modelling strategy together with corresponding experimental validation aimed to evaluate the influence of off-axial orientation on three-dimensional orthogonal woven carbon/carbon composites (3DOWCCCs) pin-bearing failure behavior. A hierarchical numerical simulation methodology at micro−/meso−/macroscales was developed to obtain the predictions. With the intention of acquiring precise mechanical responses of unnotched 3DOWCCCs, fiber and void stochastic arrangements in micro-level representative volume elements (RVEs) were generated using Random Sequential Adsorption (RSA) algorithm, meanwhile the geometrical reconstruction of meso-level RVE was accomplished via X-ray computed tomography (X-CT). Moreover, off-axial angle sensitivity analysis was presented through the comparison between macroscale modelling and testing results. The stress interaction and coupling impacts were embedded in material constitutive laws, which combined Murakami-Ohno theory for yarn based on continuum damage mechanics, and exponential damage rule for carbon matrix, incorporating trilinear cohesive zone model (CZM) for interface, and the achieved predictions agreed reasonably well with the experimental results. It is concluded that, for on-axial specimen, the warp yarns fracture and material out-of-plane swelling were the primary damage mechanism, while the material out-of-plane swelling in conjunction with yarns in-plane rotation dominated the structural failure under off-axial cases.

Bird impact response and damage mechanism of 3D orthogonal woven composite aeroengine blades

Various gelatin simulated bird projectiles were used to impact two key positions of three-dimensional (3D) orthogonal woven composite stator blades used in aeroengines: the center and leading edge at the blade back. The effects of impact velocity, projectile weight, and impact position on the macro damage mode were determined. Numerical simulations were conducted using the constitutive model developed in our previous work (Liu et al. 2023). The numerical simulation results were in good agreement with the experimental results. Combined test results, micro-CT and SEM observation and the numerical simulation results, the internal damage mechanism of the blade was explored. Four types of damage modes were seen under bird strike: edge damage on the narrow blade root, cracks on both sides of the narrow blade root, damage in the impact area, and complete fracture. Furthermore, the impact energy thresholds for visible damage and fracture were obtained for different bird weights and impact locations, which is of great significance to the anti-bird-strike design of composite blades.

Development and experimental verification of a modified constitutive model for 3D orthogonal woven composite under bird impact

Three-dimensional (3D) orthogonal woven composites have potential application as a material for aeroengine blades, which are required to withstand the impact of a bird strike. In the current research, quasi-static and dynamic tensile tests were conducted on a 3D orthogonal woven composite in the warp and weft directions. The results indicate that the ultimate strength increased while the failure strain decreased with an increase of the strain rate. The effects of strain rate on the ultimate strength in the warp and weft directions are different. Therefore, a modified constitutive model that accounts for the different effects of the strain rate in different directions was established. The corresponding parameters were obtained from the test results. Bird impact tests and numerical simulations using the developed constitutive model were carried out with 3D orthogonal woven composite panels. These panels resisted the impact of high-speed bird strikes through an overall deformation. As the impact speed increased, the maximum deformation of the target panel in the thickness direction increased and the residual deformation after the impact also increased significantly. The simulation results are in good agreement with the test results, demonstrating the effectiveness of the modified model.

Multi-directional compression behaviors and failure mechanisms of 3D orthogonal woven composites: Parametric modeling and strength prediction

Three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites (3DOWCs) are extensively adopted in various civil and military fields. Parametric finite element models of 3DOWCs were established based on the mesoscale method to predict the compression strength and progressive damage process. The effects of structural parameters and loading directions on the failure mechanisms were investigated. The predicted results agreed well with the experimental data. The results revealed that yarn densities and loading directions significantly influenced the compression strength. It increased as yarn densities increased, and the weft compression strength was almost the largest in all directions and reached the maximum value of 634.8 MPa. In this case, it was 16.9% and 166.9% higher than that of the warp and Z-directions. Damage evolutions demonstrated that the damage of yarns and matrix occurred separately at the intersection of yarns and yarns, and yarns and matrix. The damage patterns of small warp and large weft yarn densities composites included yarn buckling, the interfacial debonding between yarns and matrix, and matrix cracking. Yarn kinking and fracture were the two main damage patterns of large warp and small weft yarn densities composites, while composites with large warp and large weft yarn densities were more prone to matrix cracking.

Effect of the micro-structure on the compressive failure behavior of three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites

The failure behavior of three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites (3DOWCs) under in-plane axial compression has been experimentally and numerically investigated. The micro-structure at the intersecting points of the fabric reinforcement, which is induced by the tow force in the weaving process, is introduced. The strength and the induced damage along the warp and weft directions were investigated. The micro-structure of the 3DOWC including the details of the tow waviness and resin distribution was accurately obtained through a multiscale modeling approach. Resin cracking and the local stress concentration were captured by the numerical models, and they showed good correlations with the experimental results. The fiber undulation in the region of the tow intersection concentrated stress, which led to fiber fracture in the compression process. The main load-carrying tow, namely, the warp and weft tow along each direction, had different forms of undulation, which should be the reason for the decreasing compression-carrying capacity of the 3DOWC. With increasing Z-binder tow force, the level of fiber straightness decreased and the failure mode transformed from macroscopic brooming type to fiber microbucking. The inclination angle of the through-thickness fracture path suggested that fracture was induced by the shear failure in the load-carrying tows.

Experimental and numerical investigation of the behavior of three-dimensional orthogonal woven composite plates under high-velocity impact

The performance of the three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites (3DOWC) under high-velocity impact is studied in a combined experimental and numerical way. The experimental impact velocity ranges from 155 to 1499 m/s. The impact processes are also simulated with mesoscopic point model and the material point method (MPM). The experimental and numerical results agree well in both the residual velocity and the configuration. Four failure patterns are observed for the perforated specimens. An empirical formula is constructed based on the experimental and numerical results.

Theoretical and experimental analysis of the dielectric properties of 3D orthogonal woven GFRP composites in the terahertz frequency range

A novel method to calculate the dielectric constant (εr′) of three-dimensional orthogonal woven glass fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix (3DOW-GFRP) composites in the terahertz (THz) frequency range is developed and experimentally verified using the THz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS). The dielectric anisotropy is demonstrated through simulation by considering a single propagation direction of the THz waves and three different fiber orientations in unidirectional GFRP composites. Simulation results are compared to those obtained from the classic rule-of-mixture equations to determine the representative equations for the three different cases of fiber orientations in the (x,y,z)-coordinate system and a new model is developed to calculate εr′ of 3DOW-GFRP composites based on electromagnetic modeling principles. As opposed to previously reported lumped circuit models, our model addresses the issue of orthogonality of fiber and considers the shape and spatial disposition of the composite with respect to the polarization direction of the THz waves for accurate determination of εr′. A comparison between the measured and calculated εr′ indicates that the proposed method is highly accurate with ≤ 2.68% maximum error, while the latter reaches 7.82% for the classic rule-of-mixture equations. This method is potentially useful for the design of 3DOW-GFRP with desired εr′ for applications such as electromagnetic shielding and electrostatic discharging structures.

Numerical analyses of axial tension mechanisms of 3D orthogonal woven E-glass/epoxy composites with drilled holes

As an auspicious composite material, three-dimensional orthogonal woven E-glass/epoxy composites (3DOWC) are associated with drilling processes to assemble the parts for obtaining the desired shape and for the improvement of the component’s quality. This study investigated the axial tensile properties of 3DOWC with 6 mm drilled holes (DH). For comparison, two-dimensional woven E-glass/epoxy laminated composites (2DWC) with the same drilled hole size were also tested. To analyze the effects of holes on the microstructure properties, the finite element (FE) software ABAQUS/Standard was employed to simulate the tensile properties of composites. Hashin damage criteria were used to predict the failure modes of the composite. The stress and strain curves were obtained to compare the numerical and experimental results at the same load condition. The comparisons illustrated the existence of a good agreement between the experimental and finite element method (FEM) results. In addition, scanning electron microscope (SEM) images were used to analyze failure modes and fracture mechanisms. Various degradation phenomena were observed especially fiber fracture, matrix cracking, and tow debonding also less delamination was noticed in 3DOWC than 2DWC.

Optimization of electromagnetic shielding of three-dimensional orthogonal woven hybrid fabrics in ku band frequency region by response surface methodology

Electromagnetic shielding (EMS) has become the necessity of the present era due to enormous expansion in electronic devices accountable to emit electromagnetic radiation. The principal target of this paper is to originate three-dimensional (3D) orthogonal fabrics with conductive hybrid weft yarn and to determine their electromagnetic shielding. DREF-III core-spun yarn using copper filament in the core and polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) fiber on the sheath and fabric constructed of such yarn has a promising electromagnetic shielding characteristic. Box–Behnken experimental design has been employed to prepare various samples to investigate the electromagnetic shielding efficiency of 3D orthogonal woven structures. The orthogonal fabric samples were tested in an electromagnetic Ku frequency band using free space measurement system (FSMS) to estimate absorbance, reflectance, transmittance, and electromagnetic shielding. The increase in copper core filament diameter and hybrid yarn linear density enhances the EMS of orthogonal fabric. Statistical analysis has been done to bring out the effect and interaction of various yarn and fabric variables on EMS. Metal filament diameter, orientation, sheath fibers percentage, and fabric constructional parameters significantly affected electromagnetic shielding efficiency. The inferences of this study can be applied in other 3D structures like angle interlock, spacer fabrics for curtains, and coverings for civilians and military applications.

Reliability-based design optimization of 3D orthogonal woven composite automobile shock tower

Three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites are noted for their excellent mechanical properties and delamination resistance, so they are expected to have promising prospects in lightweight applications in the automobile industry. The multi-scale characteristics and inherent uncertainty of design variables pose great challenges to the optimization procedure for 3D orthogonal woven composite structures. This paper aims to propose a reliability-based design optimization method for guidance on the lightweight design of 3D orthogonal woven composite automobile shock tower, which includes design variables from material and structure. An analytical model was firstly set up to accurately predict the elastic and strength properties of composites. After that, a novel optimization procedure was established for the multi-scale reliability optimization design of composite shock tower, based on the combination of Monte Carlo reliability analysis method, Kriging surrogate model, and particle swarm optimization algorithm. According to the results, the optimized shock tower meets the requirements of structural performance and reliability, with a weight reduction of 37.83%.

Multiscale Analysis of Mechanical Properties of 3D Orthogonal Woven Composites with Randomly Distributed Voids.

Voids are common defects in 3D woven composites because of the complicated manufacturing processes of the composites. In this study, a micro–meso multiscale analysis was conducted to evaluate the influence of voids on the mechanical properties of three-dimensional orthogonal woven composites. Statistical analysis was implemented to calculate the outputs of models under the different scales. A method is proposed to generate the reasonable mechanical properties of the microscale models considering randomly distributed voids and fiber filaments. The distributions of the generated properties agree well with the calculated results. These properties were utilized as inputs for the mesoscale models, in which void defects were also considered. The effects of these defects were calculated and investigated. The results indicate that tensile and shear strengths were more sensitive to the microscale voids, while the compressive strength was more influenced by mesoscale voids. The results of this study can provide a design basis for evaluating the quality of 3D woven composites with void defects.

Multiscale numerical investigation on failure behaviour of three-dimensional orthogonal woven carbon/carbon composites subjected to pin-loading

On the basis of the experimental results in previous work, a multiscale numerical modeling strategy on the failure behaviour of three-dimensional orthogonal woven carbon/carbon composites under pin-loading was presented. In consideration of the complexity of internal woven architecture, the finite element analysis at micro-/meso-/macro-scale levels was performed to exhibit the effective material properties and mechanical behaviour. The geometric models were reconstructed via X-ray tomography technology to obtain feasible configurations based on actual microstructure, meanwhile the models considered the fibers random arrangement in the yarn and voids stochastic distribution in the matrix. The anisotropic composites damage evolution was characterized by Murakami-Ohno damage theory. Additionally, for a further exploration on the practical bearing failure mode, the macro-scale open-hole plate model was established using mesh superposition method to expose the damage mechanism of each component in composites at hole edge, and the numerical predictions agreed reasonably well with the experimental results.

Multi-Scale Reliability-Based Design Optimization of Three-Dimensional Orthogonal Woven Composite Fender

Multi-Scale Reliability-Based Design Optimization of Three-Dimensional Orthogonal Woven Composite Fender