Three-body Abrasive Wear Tests Research Articles

Mechanical property analysis and dry sand three-body abrasive wear behaviour of AZ31/ZrO2 composites produced by stir casting

An experimental study of three body abrasive wear behaviour of AZ31/15 vol.% Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) reinforced composites prepared by stir casting has been carried out. Microstructural analysis of the developed composites was carried out and found out that the microstructure of the composites revealed a uniform distribution of ZrO2 particles with refinement in the grain size of the matrix from 70 to 20 µm. The alterations in the microstructure led to an enhancement in both hardness (68–104 HV) and tensile strength (156–236 MPa) due to Orowan strengthening, quench hardening effect and better bonding. Response surface methodology was applied to formulate the three-body abrasive wear test characteristics such as load, speed, and time. Three body abrasive test results were utilized to generate surface graphs for different combinations of wear test parameters revealed an increase in specific wear rate. The specific wear rate was observed to increase with increase in speed up to a certain level and then started to decrease. The lowest possible specific wear rate was obtained for an optimized load of 20 N and a speed of 190 ms−1. Scanning electron microscopic examination of wear-tested samples showed higher specific wear rate at higher loads with predominantly abrasion type material removal. In conclusion, this study makes a substantial contribution to the field by elucidating the complex relationships among microstructure, mechanical properties, and the three-body abrasive wear behavior of AZ31/ZrO2 composites. The determination of optimal wear conditions and the insights gained into wear mechanisms provide valuable information for designing materials, implementing engineering solutions, and advancing the creation of wear-resistant components across a range of industries.

Study on the effect of tempering on the impact abrasive wear performance of 45Si2MnCr2Mo ultra-high strength steel

In this paper, three-body impact abrasive wear tests of 45Si2MnCr2Mo ultra-high strength steel (UHSS) at different tempering temperatures were carried out by using the MLD-10 impact abrasive wear machine. The effects of different tempering temperatures on the wear weight loss and the depth of the hardened layer of UHSS were investigated. The results show that the weight reduction rate of the steels tempered at 150 and 220 °C decreases at first and then increases with time, but the steels tempered at 290 and 360 °C gradually increase with time. The surface and subsurface areas of UHSS are strengthened by work hardening after wear. The wear performance of UHSS should consider the change of weight reduction rate with time rather than just considering short-term weight loss. UHSS tempered at 150 °C has the best comprehensive surface hardness, hardening percentage, and effective hardened layer depth, and the wear process is more uniform.

Strengthening mechanism and three-body impact abrasive wear behavior of the hot-rolled air-cooling martensitic wear resistant steel

The microstructure, mechanical properties and three-body impact abrasive wear behavior were investigated. The results indicated that martensite transformation occurred even under air-cooling, and fully martensitic structure consisted of lath martensite and a small amount of twinned martensite was obtained. And the martensite auto-tempering occurred during the subsequent air cooling process, resulting in precipitation of fine ellipsoidal V(C, N) particles and acicular η-Fe2C cementite in the matrix. Meanwhile, the tensile strength, yield strength, Brinell hardness and impact energy (−40 °C) of experimental steel were 1526 MPa, 973 MPa, 454.3 HB and 28 J, respectively. The strengthening mechanism analysis showed that solution strengthening was still the dominant strengthening method even though a large number of carbides were precipitated in the matrix. The dislocation strengthening was limited due to lower dislocation density, and the hot rolled recrystallization led to considerable grain refinement strengthening. Moreover, the results of three-body impact abrasive wear tests indicated that the wear resistance of experimental steel reached a same level as commercial Hardox450 steel. The wear mechanisms of experimental steels were plastic deformation fatigue, abrasive embedded and cutting. The mass loss rates of experimental steel and Hardox450 steel were 0.0033 g/min and 0.0032 g/min under the impact energy of 2.5 J, respectively.

Effect of Ni additions on microstructure, interfacial diffusion behavior and properties of Fe-based/B4C composite coating by vacuum cladding

In order to improve the hardenability and toughness of Fe-based/B 4 C composite coatings, which were bonded on ASTM 1045 steel by vacuum cladding, nNi ( n = 0, 1, 3, 5, weight %) were added into the coatings. The influences of Ni additions on the microstructures, interfacial diffusion behavior, impact toughness and three-body abrasive wear behavior of composite coatings were investigated systematically. The results indicated that coatings were completely fused with steel substrate without micro-defects. When the amount of Ni was increased, the activity of the C atom on the coating side was enhanced, the decarburization zone near the interface disappeared, and the metallurgical bonding state of interface was strengthened. Furthermore, the increment of Ni improved the hardenability of coating and promoted the transformation from pearlite to martensite in the matrix structure of the coating. The impact toughness of the coating samples also increased with the increment of Ni additions, and reached the maximum of 4.8 J/cm 2 at 5Ni sample. The three-body abrasive wear test implied that when 3 wt% Ni was added to the coating, the mass loss was 0.14 g, which was much lower than that of other samples and exhibited the best wear resistance. The wear mechanism of coatings changed from partial plastic cutting and fatigue spalling to single fatigue spalling. • Ni addition strengthens the metallurgical bonding state of the coating interface. • The increase of Ni addition improves the hardenability of the coating matrix. • Ni addition improves the impact toughness and wear resistance of the coating.

Microstructure and abrasive wear resistance evolution of water and liquid nitrogen forced cooling Fe-Cr-C deposit

Fe-Cr-C arc hardfacing deposits under air cooling (AC), water forced cooling (WC) and liquid nitrogen forced cooling (NC) were investigated. The fastest cooling rate and the lowest cooling finish temperature were obtained by WC and NC, respectively. Compared with AC and WC, NC led to the highest macro- and micro-hardness, and the most wear resistant. According to the three-body abrasive wear test results of dry sand/rubber wheel, the wear resistance of NC was 1.29 times that of AC. The cooling finish temperature (−125 ℃) of NC promoted the martensitic transformation. The martensite of NC was observed in the matrix of eutectic structure rather than in primary austenite (P-A), and showed a tetragonal structure, with lattice parameters a= 0.285 nm, c= 0.305 nm, because the high interstitial atom C in the lattice caused asymmetric lattice distortion.

Abrasive wear behavior of TiC-strengthened eutectic high chromium cast iron composites

The present research on high chromium cast irons (HCCIs) strengthened with TiC particles was motivated by a need to improve the abrasive wear resistance of materials for mining equipment such as board hammers and liners. The effect of TiC content and heat treatment on the wear properties of eutectic HCCIs was investigated by combining the three-body abrasive wear and micro-scratch tests. The experimental results show that the wear rate of the as-cast HCCIs decreases from 8.0 to 5.1 cm3/cm·10−8 as the volume fraction of TiC increases to 9.8%. The superior wear resistance of TiC-reinforced HCCIs was originated from the synergic contributions of ductile austenitic matrix and high volume fraction of carbides. However, the heat treatment reduces the hardness and wear resistance of the HCCIs with high TiC content due to the high volume fraction of brittle carbide phases and the low ductility of martensite matrix.

Waste Fly Ash Powder Filled Glass Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composite: Physical, Mechancial, Thermo-mechanical, and Three-body Abrasive Wear Analysis

In the present research work, waste fly ash powder-filled chopped glass fiber reinforced epoxy composites are fabricated. Conventional open mold casting technique is used for fabrication of composite samples. The fly ash powder is incorporated from 0 to 15 wt.% in the composite at an interval of 5 wt.% to analyze the physical (experimental and theoretical densities, void fraction and hardness), mechanical (tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural strength, flexural modulus, impact strength), thermo-mechanical (dynamic mechanical analysis, DMA), and three-body abrasive wear rate, respectively. From this study, it is clearly seen that density, void fraction, and hardness of the composites improved with fly ash content. The strength and modulus of the composites increased with filler content up to 10 wt.%. For the analysis of the homogeneity of composites, the storage modulus, loss modulus, and the cole-cole plot are drawn from dynamic mechanical analysis. Finally, a three-body abrasive wear test is conducted for composite samples, in a steady-state abrasive wear condition up to 10 wt.% fly ash filled composites shown better wear resistance with the variation in sliding distance and normal load. The Taguchi’s design of experiment method is used for designing of experimental runs having input controlling variables like sliding distance, normal load, filler content, and abrasive size.

Effect of WC Grain Size and Abrasive Type on the Wear Performance of HVOF-Sprayed WC-20Cr3C2-7Ni Coatings

In order to investigate the effect of WC grain size on coatings’ properties and abrasive wear performance, a few WC-20Cr3C2-7Ni coatings with three different WC grain sizes were deposited by the high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) thermal spray process. The phase compositions, microstructures, and mechanical properties of the coatings were investigated. Furthermore, the two- and three-body abrasive wear performances of the three coatings were tested by using SiC and SiO2 abrasives, respectively. The results show that all the three coatings were composed of WC, Cr3C2, and the Ni binder as well as the (W,Cr)2C phase. The abrasive wear resistance of the WC-20Cr3C2-7Ni coating monotonously increased with increasing WC grain size when the SiC abrasive was used in the two- and three-body abrasive wear tests. However, the wear resistance trend was reversed when the SiO2 abrasive was used in the three-body abrasive wear test. The specific wear rate of the WC-20Cr3C2-7Ni coating exposed to the SiC abrasive under the two-body abrasive wear test was the largest. The wear resistance of the coatings was more significantly affected by the hardness of the abrasive particles than the size of carbides present within the coating. The high hardness of SiC can cut both the carbide and the binder phase of the WC-based cermet coatings, resulting in a high wear rate, whereas the low hardness of SiO2 cuts and/or scratches the binder initially, and then it dislodges the carbides from the matrix. The dislodged carbides which were subsequently pulled out from the matrix by the repeated impact of the SiO2 abrasives result in a milder wear rate.

Wear behaviour of Cr3C2–Ni cermet reinforced hardfacings

Submerged arc welding (SAW), plasma transferred arc welding (PTAW), and tungsten inert gas welding (TIG) technologies were used to produce austenitic stainless steel (SS) and nickel alloy (Ni) matrix based hardfacings without reinforcement and reinforced by Cr3C2–Ni cermet. As a substrate material normalized structural steel S355 has been chosen. Mechanical properties of produced hardfacings were assessed in terms of hardness (HV/30) and wear resistance tests. The latter property was analysed under different wear conditions: two-body (ASTM G132) and three-body (ASTM G65) abrasive wear tests. Microstructure and phase evolution were analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), respectively. Cermet particles in all the conducted tests proved its’ selection – hardness and wear resistance of the reinforced hardfacings substantially increased. The addition of Cr3C2–Ni cermet increased the hardness twice on average in all utilized technologies leading to the higher wear resistance in further tests. Tendency of wear rate reduction is less expressed in SAW hardfacings, but in PTAW and TIG cases the strengthening effect is obvious: 8.6 and 8.1 times higher wear resistance of SS and Ni based PTAW hardfacings, respectively, and 7.5 and 4.8 times higher for TIG hardfacings. XRD analysis supported wear tests results proving the formation of the complex compounds.

The corrosion-resistant Ni-based coatings and their tribological properties

Abstract Ni-based coatings can be successfully applied under abrasive and adhesive conditions as a substitute for environmentally harmful chrome coatings. The research has been carried out for thermally flame sprayed Ni-based coatings with remelting (so-called the two-step process) with the different chemical composition of starting powders. The structure of coatings was evaluated by optical and scanning electron microscopy. Both the three-body abrasive wear test, according to ASTM G65-4 (Dry-Sand Rubber Wheel Test) and dry sliding wear test by the Falex tester, were performed. The results show the influence of the effective chemical composition of the metal powders on improving the properties of the coating. The higher hardness of the coatings leads to a lower tendency for the creation of adhesive bonds, and as a result, leads to a lower tendency to scuffing. A similar trend shows the influence of higher coating hardness on the increasing of abrasive wear resistance.

On the impacts of grain refinement and strain-induced deformation on three-body abrasive wear responses of 18Cr–8Ni austenitic stainless steel

The concept of phase reversion annealing involving cold deformation of metastable austenite to strain-induced martensite, followed by annealing was adopted to obtain fine grained 18Cr–8Ni austenitic stainless steel. The primary objective of the present study was to elucidate the wear performance of fine-grained austenitic stainless steel through three-body abrasive wear tests at room and high temperatures and compare with the coarse-grained counterpart. The quartzite stones (quartz content over 90 wt%) with diameter 5–15 mm and hardness of 1100HV were used as the abrasive in three-body abrasive wear tests. The study demonstrated that the microstructure consisting of near defect-free and equiaxed fine austenite grains with high yield strength and elongation exhibited superior wear resistance at high temperature (250 °C), which is attributed twinning induced plasticity deformation in fine austenite grains. The wear mechanism varied as a function of distance from the center of the steel sample and was characterized by microploughing and microcutting.

Mechanical Performance of HDPE/UHMWPE Hybrid Composites and Tribological Characterization using Taguchi Method

The physical, mechanical and tribological properties of short glass fiber (SGF) reinforced high density polyethylene/ ultra high molecular weight polyethylene (HDPE/UH MWPE blend) composites and zirconia (ZrO2) filled hybrid composites were studied herein. The interfacial adhesion and the influence of the combined SGF and ZrO2 reinforcements loading were examined to characterize the positive hybrid effect. The physical, mechanical and tribological properties of these hybrid composites were evaluated as per ASTM standards. The presence of SGF and ZrO2 in the HDPE/UHMWPE blends enhanced the tensile strength. The three-body abrasive wear test were also investigated and the specific wear rate was increased with the increase in fiber/filler content. The selected fracture and worn surfaces of the test specimen were investigated by scanning electron microscopy.

The effect of hexagonal boron nitride on wear resistance under two and three-body abrasion modes of polyetherketone composites

This investigation was performed to study the effect of hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) on abrasion wear behaviour of polyetherketone (PEK) composites. PEK composite were examined for two-body abrasive wear (2-BAW) with silicon carbide abrasive paper and three-body abrasive wear (3-BAW) test with silica sand according to ASTM standards. The Taguchi L9 design of experiment was employed to optimize the wear operating parameters. The optimized conditions with 10 N load, 320 grit size and 10 wt% of hBN resulted minimum specific wear rate (Ks). Unfilled PEK portrayed better impact strength, hardness, lower density and lower Ks under 3-BAW. However, 10 wt% of hBN was beneficial under 2-BAW condition. The SEM micrographs were analyzed to probe the wear mechanism involved in the abrasion process. Surface roughness (Ra) value measured was compared with Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and it was found that both the values are in good agreement. Multi-objective optimization by ratio analysis (MOORA) was implemented to rank the overall performance of PEK composites under study.

Study of the three-body impact abrasive wear behaviour of a low alloy steel reinforced with niobium

In order to improve the wear resistance of steel, a new Nb-added reinforced low-alloy wear-resistant steel was developed, and the wear behavior of the three-body impact abrasive was systematically studied under the impact energy of 0.5J, 2.5J, 4J, 5J. Tensile testing, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and nanoindentation were used to characterize the mechanical properties, microstructure evolution and wear mechanism of steel. The experimental results show that NB05 (0.05 wt%-Nb) steel with smaller size lath martensite has higher strength performance and better impact wear resistance than NB0 (0 wt%-Nb) steel. During three-body impact abrasive wear tests, the corrected wear rate was less under higher impact energy for both steels, and the NB05 steel owned less wear rate than NB0. The main strengthening mechanisms of the wear layer were newly formed martensite twins, niobium precipitates, high density dislocations and the formation of nanoscale grains for the NB05 steel. The wear mechanism of the wear layer is mainly reflected in buffering, lubrication and protection of debris.

A comparative study on the three-body abrasive wear performance of Q&P processing and low-temperature bainitic transformation for a medium-carbon dual-phase steel

A comparative study to assess the three-body abrasive wear performance of medium-carbon dual-phase steels, obtained by the two heat treatments: quenching and partitioning (Q&P) process and low-temperature bainitic transformation, was conducted by employing a designed three-body abrasive wear method. The microstructures were examined using the optical, scanning and transmission electron microscopes. The carbon content of the retained austenite in the samples was measured by electron probe microanalysis. The results showed that the ultrafine dual-phases, consisting of martensite/bainite and retained austenite, were obtained in both the heat treatments. Both the samples were observed to be extremely hard (458–471 HV1). The results of the three-body abrasive wear tests indicated that the abrasion weight loss decreased as the surface hardness increased. Further, compared to the low temperature transformed bainitic sample, the Q&P treated martensitic sample had a higher retained austenite stability, superior transformation-induced plasticity effect and thicker deformed layer which showed a better three-body abrasive wear performance.

Influence of microstructure on the wear and corrosion behavior of detonation sprayed Cr2O3-Al2O3 and plasma sprayed Cr2O3 coatings

Cr2O3-20wt% Al2O3 cermet composite and Cr2O3 coatings were deposited by the detonation spray coating (DSC) and air plasma spray techniques on Ti-6Al-4V substrates. The microstructure and phase formation in the coatings were analysed. Micro hardness and fracture toughness of coatings were measured using Vickers diamond pyramid indenter. Owing to the well-defined layered structure with individually richer Cr2O3 and Al2O3 phases together with oxide-based solid solution at the splat boundaries, the DSC Cr2O3-Al2O3 composite coating exhibits dense microstructure and better indentation fracture toughness than the well established plasma sprayed Cr2O3 coating. Although the plasma sprayed Cr2O3 coating also exhibits layered structure; the relatively poor indentation fracture toughness is attributed to the significantly higher porosity and weaker inter-splat bonding. Towards understanding the relative tribological behavior, the sliding and three-body abrasive wear tests were conducted. The material removal mechanism and associated degradation behavior of detonation sprayed Cr2O3-Al2O3 coating has been correlated with coating microstructure comparatively against the plasma sprayed Cr2O3 coating. Electro-chemical corrosion tests of coatings in salt solution (artificial sea water) reveals an improved corrosion protection by Cr2O3-Al2O3 composite coating as compared to Cr2O3 coating. Enhanced tribological performance and corrosion resistance was attributed to the dense and crack free structure of Cr2O3-Al2O3 composite coating than its counterpart.

Wear Resistance of Sintered Composite Hardfacings under Different Abrasive Wear Conditions

The article focuses on vacuum liquid phase sintered (PM) composite hardfacings and their behaviour under different abrasive wear conditions. Hardfacings studied contained 30 – 50 vol % fine, coarse or multimodal (fine and coarse) hardmetal reinforcement. For wear resistance studies, we used the Abrasive Rubber Wheel Wear (ARWW) test as a three-body abrasive wear test, the Abrasive Wheel Wear (AWW) test as a two-body abrasive wear test and the Abrasive-Impact Erosion wear (AIEW) test as an abrasive-erosive wear test. Tested materials were compared to Hardox 400 steel and CDP112 wear plate (Castolin Eutectic® Ltd.). It was found that under three-body abrasion conditions (ARWW test) hardfacings with high content of spehrical coarse reinforcement are suitable; their wear resistance is about two times higher than that of unreinforced hardfacings. Under two-body abrasive wear (AWW test), hardfacings with a high content of coarse reinforcement are recommended; their wear resistance is up to eight times higher than that of unreinforced hardfacings from the figures and graphs mentioned in the text. Under abrasive-erosive wear (AIEW test), unreinforced ductile materials are recommended; they have two to three times higher wear resistance than composite hardfacings reinforced with fine or multimodal reinforcement. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.ms.23.3.16323

Interface transition layer interaction mechanism for ZTAP/HCCI composites

Abstract ZrO2-toughened Al2O3 (ZTA, 40%) ceramic particles reinforced by high chromium cast iron (HCCI) matrix composites were fabricated by casting infiltration. The interaction between the ZTA ceramic particles and the matrix by the interface transition layer (ITL) was investigated. From the perspective of interfacial bonding, the ceramic particles and HCCI experienced metallurgical bonding by the ITL. Electron probe microanalysis results demonstrated that Cr, Fe, and Mn diffused from the matrix to the ITL. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the main phases in the transition layer were glassy. The wear resistance of the composites with the transition layer was better than those without, as indicated by the three-body abrasive wear tester.

Physico-mechanical properties of sustainable Sagwan-Teak Wood Flour/Polyester Composites with/without gum rosin

Wood polymer composite (WPC) recognized as sustainable green polymer composite is widely used for its high durability, low maintenance, acceptable relative strength and stiffness, economy relative to other competing materials, and the fact that it is derived from a natural resource. This paper recounts the fabrication and investigation of physico-mechanical properties of Sagwan Teak Wood Flour/Polyester Composites with and without gum rosin binder. Polyester/wood flour (Tectona grandis) composites with and without gum rosin were fabricated in a wide range of compositions by hand lay-up technique. Wood flour (WF) percentage was varied from 5 to 20% by weight and tensile, flexural, impact and three-body abrasive wear tests were performed to the as-fabricated composites. It was observed that WPC having 10wt% WF had the best tensile and impact strength. At this optimum weight percentage of wood flour (i.e. 10wt%), the polyester resin was further blended with various wt% natural gum rosin and the sustainable composites were further optimized for best mechanical properties. The ranking of all these composites has been evaluated by TOPSIS technique by optimizing the various properties. TOPSIS optimization demonstrated that the composite consisting 10% WF mixed with 15% gum rosin yielded excellent impact strength, high abrasive wear resistance and high ductility as demanded in sandwich composite material.

Optimization of Wear Behaviour of AA8011-Gr Composite using Taguchi Technique

Composite is a combination of two or more dissimilar materials having a distinct interface between them such that the properties of the resulting material are superior to the individual constituents. Aluminum and its alloys have received major attention as matrix material for Metal Matrix Composites because they have excellent properties such as light weight, high strength to weight ratio, good thermal properties and high wear resistance. The present work aims to investigate 3-body abrasive wear behaviour of graphite (Gr) reinforced Aluminum alloy (AA-8011) metal matrix composite. The composite was prepared by two-step stir casting route. Three-body abrasive wear test was used to explore wear behaviour. The mass of each specimen was measured before and after wear test. Taguchi Technique was used as statistical tool to determine optimum combination of control parameters. L9 orthogonal array was employed and experimental design was based on control factors, Gr. wt.%, time, load and response factor was wear rate to evaluate 3-body abrasive wear performance. Empirical relation was developed for wear rate in terms of control variables by multiple regression analysis. Lastly, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the influence of individual factors on wear rate. Results were analyzed using the software called MINITAB V.17.1.0. It was observed that time and reinforcement wt.% were the significant factors affecting response variable. Also higher values of reinforcement wt% and time lead to higher wear resistance.