Thoracic Society Statement Research Articles

Updates on British Thoracic Society Statement on Pleural Disease and Procedures 2023.

Updates on British Thoracic Society Statement on Pleural Disease and Procedures 2023.

Race and Ethnicity in Pulmonary Function Test Interpretation: An Official American Thoracic Society Statement.

Current American Thoracic Society (ATS) standards promote the use of race and ethnicity-specific reference equations for pulmonary function test (PFT) interpretation. There is rising concern that the use of race and ethnicity in PFT interpretation contributes to a false view of fixed differences between races and may mask the effects of differential exposures. This use of race and ethnicity may contribute to health disparities by norming differences in pulmonary function. In the United States and globally, race serves as a social construct that is based on appearance and reflects social values, structures, and practices. Classification of people into racial and ethnic groups differs geographically and temporally. These considerations challenge the notion that racial and ethnic categories have biological meaning and question the use of race in PFT interpretation. The ATS convened a diverse group of clinicians and investigators for a workshop in 2021 to evaluate the use of race and ethnicity in PFT interpretation. Review of evidence published since then that challenges current practice and continued discussion concluded with a recommendation to replace race and ethnicity-specific equations with race-neutral average reference equations, which must be accompanied with a broader re-evaluation of how PFTs are used to make clinical, employment, and insurance decisions. There was also a call to engage key stakeholders not represented in this workshop and a statement of caution regarding the uncertain effects and potential harms of this change. Other recommendations include continued research and education to understand the impact of the change, to improve the evidence for the use of PFTs in general, and to identify modifiable risk factors for reduced pulmonary function.

Comparative analysis of pulmonary function in children born preterm and full-term at 6-9 years of age.

Objective:To compare pulmonary function parameters and the prevalence of altered pulmonary function in children born preterm and full-term, using the Global Lung Initiative reference values.Methods:This is a cross-sectional study with 6–9-year-old children submitted to measurement of airway resistance (Rint) and spirometry according to the American Thoracic Society and European Respiratory Society Technical Statement. The inclusion criteria were, among the preterm group: gestational age <37 weeks and birth weight <2000g; among the full-term group: schoolchildren born full-term with birth weight >2500g, recruited at two public schools in São Paulo, Brazil, matched by sex and age with the preterm group. As exclusion criteria, congenital malformations, cognitive deficit, and respiratory problems in the past 15 days were considered.Results:A total of 112 children were included in each group. Preterm children had gestational age of 30.8±2.8 weeks and birth weight of 1349±334g. Among them, 46.6% were boys, 46.4% presented respiratory distress syndrome, 19.6% bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and 65.2% were submitted to mechanical ventilation in the neonatal unit. At study entry, both groups were similar in age and anthropometric parameters. Parameters of pulmonary function (Z scores) in preterm and full-term groups were: Rint (0.13±2.24 vs. -1.02±1.29; p<0.001); forced vital capacity (FVC) (-0.39±1.27 vs. -0.15±1.03; p=0.106), forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1)/FVC (-0.23±1.22 vs. 0.14±1.11; p=0.003), FEV1 (-0.48±1.29 vs. -0.04±1.08; p=0.071), and forced expiratory flow between 25% and 75% of vital capacity (FEF25-75) (1.16±1.37 vs. 2.08±1.26; p=0.005), respectively. The prevalence values of altered airway resistance (16.1 vs. 1.8%; p<0.001) and spirometry (26.8 vs. 13.4%, p=0.012) were higher in preterm infants than in full-term ones.Conclusions:Preterm children had higher prevalence of altered pulmonary function, higher Z scores of airway resistance, and lower Z scores of FEV1/FVC and FEF25-75 compared with those born full-term.

Turkish Thoracic Society's Statement Report on Electronic Cigarettes and Heated Tobacco Products.

Tobacco addiction, which causes the death of more than 8.5 million people in the world every year, is a preventable global public health problem. There are 1.1 billion adult smokers worldwide and 60% of them desire or intend to quit but unfortunately, the tobacco industry continues to profit at the expense of people’s lives by marketing electronic cigarettes and heated tobacco products as a smoking cessation method and they continue to poison young people with new threat tobacco products, promising a “smoke-free future” Turkish Thoracic Society is actively involved in the implementation of the National Tobacco Control Program to protect public health and has warned and raised awareness of new threats to the youth, such as electronic cigarettes and heated tobacco products. The purpose of this report is to provide information about electronic cigarettes and heated tobacco products and to present TTJ’s position on the subject.

Are there sex-related differences in therapeutic CPAP levels in adults undergoing in-laboratory titration?

The first-choice therapy for adults with moderate/severe obstructive sleep apnea is continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). However, studies evaluating whether the therapeutic CPAP level obtained from a titration is affected by sex are surprisingly scarce. Our main objective was to verify if sex influenced the optimal CPAP measurement obtained during a titration. This cross-sectional study was conducted in adults diagnosed with moderate/severe obstructive sleep apnea [baseline apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) ≥ 15.0 events/h] who underwent auto-adjusting CPAP titration (S9 or S10 AutoSet ResMed) in a sleep laboratory setting. All participants used a nasal mask during the titration. The optimal pressure, leak, and residual AHI values were registered. Multiple linear regression was used to evaluate if clinical and polysomnographic data influenced the therapeutic CPAP level setting (95th percentile pressure). A total of 1,006 adults were enrolled: 354 women and 652 men. There were no statistically significant sex-related differences in the CPAP requirements and leak values delineated during the titration; all P-values > .005. However, the median residual AHI was significantly higher in males vs females: 2.7 events/h vs 2.2 events/h (P = .008). Body mass index (β: 0.292, P < .001), baseline AHI (β: 0.167, P < .001), and age (β: 0.065, P = .035) were independent predictors of the therapeutic CPAP level settings. Sex does not significantly influence the therapeutic CPAP settings. However, age, BMI, and baseline AHI emerge as independent predictors of the 95thpercentile CPAP requirement during an auto-adjusting CPAP titration. Duarte RLM, Magalhães-da-Silveira FJ, Gozal D. Are there sex-related differences in therapeutic CPAP levels in adults undergoing in-laboratory titration? JClin Sleep Med. 2021;17(9):1815-1820.

Addressing Disparities in Lung Cancer Screening Eligibility and Healthcare Access. An Official American Thoracic Society Statement.

Background: There are well-documented disparities in lung cancer outcomes across populations. Lung cancer screening (LCS) has the potential to reduce lung cancer mortality, but for this benefit to be realized by all high-risk groups, there must be careful attention to ensuring equitable access to this lifesaving preventive health measure.Objectives: To outline current knowledge on disparities in eligibility criteria for, access to, and implementation of LCS, and to develop an official American Thoracic Society statement to propose strategies to optimize current screening guidelines and resource allocation for equitable LCS implementation and dissemination.Methods: A multidisciplinary panel with expertise in LCS, implementation science, primary care, pulmonology, health behavior, smoking cessation, epidemiology, and disparities research was convened. Participants reviewed available literature on historical disparities in cancer screening and emerging evidence of disparities in LCS.Results: Existing LCS guidelines do not consider racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and sex-based differences in smoking behaviors or lung cancer risk. Multiple barriers, including access to screening and cost, further contribute to the inequities in implementation and dissemination of LCS.Conclusions: This statement identifies the impact of LCS eligibility criteria on vulnerable populations who are at increased risk of lung cancer but do not meet eligibility criteria for screening, as well as multiple barriers that contribute to disparities in LCS implementation. Strategies to improve the selection and dissemination of LCS in vulnerable groups are described.

South African Thoracic Society statement on obstructive airways disease and COVID-19.

Summary Asthmatics do not appear to have increased susceptibility to COVID-19.Uncontrolled severe asthma may be associated with worsened COVID-19 outcomes, especially in asthmatics managed with oral corticosteroids. Risk mitigation measures such as hand hygiene, social distancing and wearing of face masks must be observed at all times. Asthma should be managed as outlined in local and international guidelines.Ensure an adequate supply of medication, and inhaled corticosteroids should not be withdrawnChronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is associated with severe COVID-19 disease and poor outcomes. Maintenance of background medication is important to avoid exacerbations of COPD.Vaccination against influenza is strongly advised for all patients with asthma and COPDVaccination against pneumococcal infection is advisable for patients with COPD. Patients with obstructive airway disease on oral corticosteroids and/or with impaired lung function should take stringent safety precautions. This statement will be updated when more data become available Asthma and COPD occur commonly in South Africa. SARS-CoV-2 is a novel coronavirus, which can result in COVID-19-associated severe respiratory infection with respiratory failure and the need for mechanical ventilation. The South African Thoracic Society has prepared a guidance statement to assist clinicians and patients with asthma and COPD during the current epidemic.

Racial disparities in positive airway pressure therapy adherence among veterans with obstructive sleep apnea.

Black individuals are disproportionately affected by diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and OSA. Adherence to PAP therapy has been reported to be lower among black individuals. This study seeks to examine associations between black race and PAP adherence among veterans with OSA. This was a retrospective study. Veterans newly diagnosed with OSA at a single Department of Veterans Affairs sleep center who were prescribed a modem-enabled PAP device between January 2015 and November 2017 were enrolled. PAP adherence was defined as ≥ 4 hours nightly usage for at least 70% of nights measured at 30 days from PAP setup. We examined the relationship between race and adherence, controlling for sex, marital status, age, socioeconomic status, residual apnea-hypopnea index), and mask leak. Of 3013 patients identified with OSA, 2571 (85%) were newly started on PAP therapy (95% male, aged 59 years ± 14 years, 45% married, 8% with neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage). Twenty-five percent of participants were black, and 57% were white. PAP adherence at 30 days was 50% overall (42% among blacks, 53% among nonblacks). Black race was associated with reduced 30-day PAP adherence in unadjusted (P < .001) and adjusted logistic regression models (odds ratio = 0.64; 95% CI, 0.53 - 0.78; P < .001). Among veterans with OSA, black race was associated with reduced PAP adherence. These findings suggest health inequality among black individuals in the treatment of OSA.

The clinical impact of drug-induced hepatotoxicity on anti-tuberculosis therapy: a case control study

BackgroundThere are limited data available on whether drug-induced hepatotoxicity (DIH) affects the clinical outcomes of tuberculosis (TB) treatment. We explored the effects of DIH on the clinical course and outcomes of pulmonary TB.MethodsIn this retrospective cohort study, we included patients with culture-proven pulmonary TB treated in a tertiary hospital from 2013 to 2016. DIH was defined as proposed by the official American Thoracic Society statement. We compared the clinical outcomes of DIH and non-DIH patients.ResultsBetween January 1, 2013 and December 31, 2016, a total of 168 TB patients were included, and 20 (11.9%) were diagnosed with DIH. These patients were significantly older, had a higher Charlson Comorbidity Index score, exhibited more chronic liver disease, included more chronic alcoholics, and had a lower body mass index than non-DIH patients. We found no significant differences between DIH and non-DIH patients in the 2-month sputum culture conversion rate, the time to sputum culture conversion, treatment outcomes, or total treatment duration. However, the ratio of treatment interruption time to total treatment duration and the proportion of hepatotonic users were significantly higher among DIH patients.ConclusionDIH development during TB treatment does not significantly affect the clinical outcomes of pulmonary TB. However, treatment interruption caused by DIH may increase the risks of future relapse and acquired resistance. Further study is needed.

Standardization of Spirometry 2019 Update. An Official American Thoracic Society and European Respiratory Society Technical Statement.

Background: Spirometry is the most common pulmonary function test. It is widely used in the assessment of lung function to provide objective information used in the diagnosis of lung diseases and monitoring lung health. In 2005, the American Thoracic Society and the European Respiratory Society jointly adopted technical standards for conducting spirometry. Improvements in instrumentation and computational capabilities, together with new research studies and enhanced quality assurance approaches, have led to the need to update the 2005 technical standards for spirometry to take full advantage of current technical capabilities.Methods: This spirometry technical standards document was developed by an international joint task force, appointed by the American Thoracic Society and the European Respiratory Society, with expertise in conducting and analyzing pulmonary function tests, laboratory quality assurance, and developing international standards. A comprehensive review of published evidence was performed. A patient survey was developed to capture patients’ experiences.Results: Revisions to the 2005 technical standards for spirometry were made, including the addition of factors that were not previously considered. Evidence to support the revisions was cited when applicable. The experience and expertise of task force members were used to develop recommended best practices.Conclusions: Standards and consensus recommendations are presented for manufacturers, clinicians, operators, and researchers with the aims of increasing the accuracy, precision, and quality of spirometric measurements and improving the patient experience. A comprehensive guide to aid in the implementation of these standards was developed as an online supplement.

Maximal Static Respiratory and Sniff Pressures in Healthy Children. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Respiratory muscle strength in children can be assessed by maximal inspiratory pressures (MIP), maximal expiratory pressures (MEP), and sniff nasal inspiratory pressures (SNIP). However, previous studies involved small cohorts of healthy children and reported wide reference ranges. To perform a systematic review to summarize existing reference ranges for MIP, MEP, and SNIP tests in healthy children and to conduct a meta-analysis to develop comprehensive prediction equations. Five databases were searched for relevant studies from database inception to May 29, 2017. Study inclusion was limited to publications that evaluated MIP, MEP, and SNIP values in healthy children aged 18 years or younger. Studies were also excluded if testing methodology differed greatly from the 2002 American Thoracic Society Statement on Respiratory Muscle Testing. Requests for raw data were made to authors via e-mail. A total of 18 studies including 3,509 children were systematically reviewed. Diagnostic accuracy of the included studies was assessed using the QUADAS-2 tool, which revealed a high risk of bias for flow and timing and for applicability that may influence the generalizability of our findings. All 18 studies evaluated respiratory pressures in children in seated position. MIP tests were conducted from residual volume, MEP tests from total lung capacity, and SNIP tests from functional residual capacity. The MIP and MEP values in three age groups for boys and girls were summarized using meta-analysis based on individual participant data from five studies containing 1,709 healthy children. Further analyses showed that MIP and MEP were significantly greater in boys than in girls (P < 0.0001). In both sexes, MEP values were always greater than MIP values (P < 0.05). Multivariable random effects models were then performed to establish sex-specific prediction equations. These equations found age, height, and weight to be significant predictor variables. Only two studies with SNIP values from healthy children were included in the review, but they were not part of the meta-analysis. We summarized the available reference ranges for MIP, MEP, and SNIP tests based on existing literature, especially for three age groups, and developed prediction equations that can be used in pulmonary function laboratories to aid clinicians. Existing literature on SNIP tests is limited, and future studies are encouraged to explore their use in children. Systematic review registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO; CRD42017072004).

Osteoarthritis-related walking disability and cardiovascular disease risk

Purpose: While osteoarthritis (OA)-related morbidity is well known, the association between OA and increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk is not fully elucidated. Arterial stiffness is a validated marker of cardiovascular risk and a predictor of mortality. However, evidence suggests physical exercise reduces arterial stiffness, indicating that arterial stiffness can be modified. Moreover, it seems clear that OA disability increases the risk of CVD beyond what can be explained by common risk factors like ageing and obesity. Hence, the objectives in this study were to compare walking ability in a population-based OA cohort with age- and gender-matched peers from the general population, and to explore the associations between walking ability and CVD risk measured as arterial stiffness in the OA cohort. Methods: This cross-sectional study included participants (40-80 years) who self-reported OA (n = 500) in a population-based study and matched peers from the general population (n = 370). Both groups performed the 6 min walk distance-test (6 MWD) according to the American Thoracic Society statement guidelines. Further, participants who self-reported OA completed comprehensive clinical examinations and were classified according to the American College of Rheumatology criteria by a medical doctor. In addition, data on demographic (age, gender, body mass index, smoking habits, education level) and clinical characteristics (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, Numeric Rating Scale of Joint pain) were collected. Arterial stiffness determined by carotid-femoral Pulse Wave Velocity was measured using a non-invasive gold standard method. Pulse Wave Velocity and resting heart rate were assessed using the Sphygomocor apparatus (Atcor, Australia). Brachial blood pressure was measured after 5 min rest, using the OMRON M7 (Kyoto, Japan). Group difference in 6 MWD was calculated with t-test, and the association between 6 MWD and CVD risk (arterial stiffness) in the OA cohort was explored in multivariate regression models. Results: The mean (SD) age of the OA-participants was 63.2 (8.8) years, 28% were men. More than 2/3 (68.4%) were classified with overweight or obesity, and one in four of the participants reported using non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on a daily basis. Most participants (78%) described joint pain of five or lower on the Numeric Rating Scale. In total, 347 participants (69.4%) were classified with OA in one or more joint(s) according to the American College of Rheumatology criteria. Mean (SD) arterial stiffness (Pulse Wave Velocity) in the OA- group was 8.82 (2.06) m/s, ranging from 4.65 to 18.30 m/s. Compared to the general population, OA participants achieved a significantly shorter 6 MWD (551.4 m vs. 615.3 m, P < 0.001). In age stratified analyses, the largest mean difference in 6 MWD was observed in the youngest age group (40–49 years) (594.9 m vs. 685.3 m, P < 0.001) (Figure 1). These differences attenuated gradually with increasing age. In the OA group, the 6 MWD was significantly associated to arterial stiffness (Pulse Wave Velocity) in adjusted analysis (P = 0.001); 100 m longer walking distance corresponded to 0.3 m/s reduction in arterial stiffness. Conclusions: Already from the age of forty, people with OA have significantly shorter walking distance compared to age matched peers, underlining the importance of early clinical approach to OA. Further, in the OA-group, the 6 MWD was significantly associated with arterial stiffness, suggesting that walking disability is important for the CVD risk profile in OA.

Health Disparities in Patients with Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: A Blueprint for Action. An Official American Thoracic Society Statement

Health disparities have a major impact in the quality of life and clinical care received by minorities in the United States. Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a rare cardiopulmonary disorder that affects children and adults and that, if untreated, results in premature death. The impact of health disparities in the diagnosis, treatment, and clinical outcome of patients with PAH has not been systematically investigated. The specific goals of this research statement were to conduct a critical review of the literature concerning health disparities in PAH, identify major research gaps and prioritize direction for future research. Literature searches from multiple reference databases were performed using medical subject headings and text words for pulmonary hypertension and health disparities. Members of the committee discussed the evidence and provided recommendations for future research. Few studies were found discussing the impact of health disparities in PAH. Using recent research statements focused on health disparities, the group identified six major study topics that would help address the contribution of health disparities to PAH. Representative studies in each topic were discussed and specific recommendations were made by the group concerning the most urgent questions to address in future research studies. At present, there are few studies that address health disparities in PAH. Given the potential adverse impact of health disparities, we recommend that research efforts be undertaken to address the topics discussed in the document. Awareness of health disparities will likely improve advocacy efforts, public health policy and the quality of care of vulnerable populations with PAH.

Treatment and outcome of non-tuberculous mycobacterial pulmonary disease in a predominantly fibro-cavitary disease cohort.

The incidence of non-tuberculous mycobacterial pulmonary disease (NTM-PD) has increased in the Netherlands. The fibro-cavitary disease manifestation predominates, as elsewhere in Europe. We studied treatment and outcome of this disease manifestation, as such data are scarce. We conducted a retrospective study of all patients diagnosed with NTM-PD according to the American Thoracic Society statement between 2008 and 2013 in a reference clinic. Sixty-three patients were included. Thirty-two (51%) were females and mean age was 60.8 years. Most patients had underlying COPD (73%). M.avium complex pulmonary disease (MAC-PD) was most frequent (n=38, 60.3%), followed by M.malmoense (n=7) and M.kansasii (n=6). Twenty-two patients had fibro-cavitary MAC-PD, 14 had nodular-bronchiectatic MAC-PD and 2 had other manifestations. Thirty-two (94%) patients treated for MAC-PD received a rifamycin-ethambutol-macrolide based regimen. Microbiological cure rates were lower for fibro-cavitary (52.4%) than for nodular bronchiectatic MAC-PD (100%; p=0.03). Sixty-nine percent of treated patients experienced adverse events, most frequently gastrointestinal discomforts (71%), tinnitus (18%), hearing impairment (16%) and hepatotoxicity (18%). Fibro-cavitary NTM-PD remains predominant, but is now diagnosed more frequently in women. Fibro-cavitary disease is harder to cure than nodular-bronchiectatic disease. Adverse events are frequent and can necessitate cessation of treatment.

Interstitial Pneumonia With Autoimmune Features: Value of Histopathology.

- Patients with idiopathic interstitial pneumonia may display evidence of autoimmunity without meeting criteria for a defined connective tissue disease. A recent European Respiratory Society/American Thoracic Society statement proposed research criteria for interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features (IPAF), which includes findings from the clinical, serologic, and morphologic domains. - To investigate the importance of histopathologic criteria within the morphologic domain and to report our methodology for identifying these features. - Patients with idiopathic interstitial pneumonia at the University of Chicago who underwent surgical lung biopsy or lung transplantation were assessed for IPAF histopathologic features, using the initial pathology interpretation in the electronic records. A focused rereview of available slides by a pulmonary pathologist was then performed for patients who failed to meet IPAF criteria on initial pathology assessment. - Of 422 patients with idiopathic interstitial pneumonia, 176 (41.7%) underwent surgical lung biopsy or lung transplant. Forty-six of those 176 patients (26.1%) met IPAF criteria by initial pathology interpretation and a positive clinical or serologic feature. Of the remaining 130 patients, 73 (56.2%) met either the clinical or serologic domains without meeting the morphologic domain, whereas 36 (27.7%) had slides available for pathology rereview. This rereview demonstrated nonspecific interstitial pneumonia in 8 of 36 patients (22.2%) and lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates in 6 of 36 patients (16.7%), resulting in an additional 7 of 36 patients (19.4%) with idiopathic interstitial pneumonia that met the IPAF criteria. In IPAF, pulmonary vasculopathy was the most prevalent finding (45 of 84; 53.6%) and predicted increased mortality (hazard ratio, 2.5; P = .04). - Using a methodological approach to identifying IPAF pathology, we demonstrate a significant increase in the number of patients meeting IPAF criteria because of focused pathologic review and highlight the prognostic value of the IPAF pathologic findings.

Proteome Profiling in Lung Injury after Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation

Pulmonary complications due to infection and idiopathic pneumonia syndrome (IPS), a noninfectious lung injury in hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients, are frequent causes of transplantation-related mortality and morbidity. Our objective was to characterize the global bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) protein expression of IPS to identify proteins and pathways that differentiate IPS from infectious lung injury after HSCT. We studied 30 BALF samples from patients who developed lung injury within 180 days of HSCT or cellular therapy transfusion (natural killer cell transfusion). Adult subjects were classified as having IPS or infectious lung injury by the criteria outlined in the 2011 American Thoracic Society statement. BALF was depleted of hemoglobin and 14 high-abundance proteins, treated with trypsin, and labeled with isobaric tagging for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) 8-plex reagent for two-dimensional capillary liquid chromatography (LC) and data dependent peptide tandem mass spectrometry (MS) on an Orbitrap Velos system in higher-energy collision-induced dissociation activation mode. Protein identification employed a target-decoy strategy using ProteinPilot within Galaxy P. The relative protein abundance was determined with reference to a global internal standard consisting of pooled BALF from patients with respiratory failure and no history of HSCT. A variance weighted t-test controlling for a false discovery rate of ≤5% was used to identify proteins that showed differential expression between IPS and infectious lung injury. The biological relevance of these proteins was determined by using gene ontology enrichment analysis and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis. We characterized 12 IPS and 18 infectious lung injury BALF samples. In the 5 iTRAQ LC-MS/MS experiments 845, 735, 532, 615, and 594 proteins were identified for a total of 1125 unique proteins and 368 common proteins across all 5 LC-MS/MS experiments. When comparing IPS to infectious lung injury, 96 proteins were differentially expressed. Gene ontology enrichment analysis showed that these proteins participate in biological processes involved in the development of lung injury after HSCT. These include acute phase response signaling, complement system, coagulation system, liver X receptor (LXR)/retinoid X receptor (RXR), and farsenoid X receptor (FXR)/RXR modulation. We identified 2 canonical pathways modulated by TNF-α, FXR/RXR activation, and IL2 signaling in macrophages. The proteins also mapped to blood coagulation, fibrinolysis, and wound healing—processes that participate in organ repair. Cell movement was identified as significantly over-represented by proteins with differential expression between IPS and infection. In conclusion, the BALF protein expression in IPS differed significantly from infectious lung injury in HSCT recipients. These differences provide insights into mechanisms that are activated in lung injury in HSCT recipients and suggest potential therapeutic targets to augment lung repair.

The Walking Test: Use in clinical practice

Exercise Capacity is the expression of the cardiovascular and of metabolic organic efficiency and represents a important prognostic marker. The Six Minute Walking Test is adopted in the practice for exercise capacity evaluation in the normal subject as in pneumologic or cardiac rehabilitation programs, and in both pediatric and elderly ages. The aim of the work is to present a practical summary of the application of the six minutes walking test, according to the American Thoracic Society statement. We reviewed the various experiences of its application, and reported the indications, clinical interpretation parameters, relationship and correlation between functional and clinical parameters (hospitalization, quality of life, therapy and exercise control response and compliance), the basic and advanced protocol, the application modality, the reporting models, and the educational checklist.

Can we use the 6-minute step test instead of the 6-minute walking test? An observational study

ObjectiveTo verify whether or not heart rate is maintained below the calculated submaximal level in healthy, sedentary subjects when they perform the 6-minute step test (6MST) and the 6-minute walking test (6MWT), and to compare the maximal heart rate achieved by the subjects at the end of each test. DesignObservational, cross-sectional study. SettingOne tertiary centre. ParticipantsTwo hundred and fifty-three participants from a pool of 330 healthy and sedentary subjects between 20 and 80 years of age. InterventionsBoth the 6MWT and the 6MST were performed in accordance with the American Thoracic Society's statement. Dyspnoea, blood pressure, oxygen saturation and heart rate were measured before and after each test. ResultsMean heart rate immediately after the 6MST was significantly higher than mean heart rate immediately after the 6MWT {125 [standard deviation (SD) 19] vs 111 (SD 17) beats/minute; mean difference 13 (95% confidence interval of the difference 10 to 16); P<0.001}. Moreover, mean heart rate during (3minutes after commencement) the 6MST [118 (SD 18) beats/minute] was statistically higher than mean heart rate at the end of the 6MWT [111 (SD 18) beats/minute; P<0.001]. None of the subjects achieved the calculated submaximal heart rate. ConclusionsThe 6MST and 6MWT are safe and produce submaximal effort in healthy participants. However, they are not interchangeable, and the 6MST requires more energy than the 6MWT.

Prevalence of airflow obstruction according GOLD, ATS and ERS criteria in symptomatic ever-smokers referring to a Pulmonary Rehabilitation Department

To evaluate in a Pulmonary Rehabilitation (PR) setting the prevalence of airflow obstruction (AO) in either current or former smokers > or = 45 years old both with dyspnoea and with chronic productive cough, using European Respiratory society (ERS) statement (FEV1/SVC < 88 and < 89% predicted in men and women, respectively), American Thoracic Society (ATS) statement (FEV1/FVC < 75%), and Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) statement (FEV1/FVC < 70%). Lung function tests were performed in each patient who was referred to our PR department due to respiratory diagnosis or symptoms. For analysis, in patients showing AO we used post-bronchodilator lung function values. In 184 ever-smoker patients with symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), the prevalence rates of AO were as follows: ERS = 89.7%, ATS = 76.6%, and GOLD = 63.6%. Patients with AO according ERS criteria showing moderate to severe (M/S) obstruction (i.e., FEV1 < 70% predicted) were 119. Patients with ERS M/S AO but without AO using either ATS or GOLD criteria were 8.4% and 19.3%, respectively. Prevalence of AO is highly dependent on which guidelines it is based. ATS and particularly GOLD statement can cause a large under-diagnosis even of moderate to severe COPD. Diagnosis of COPD may be overlooked if SVC is not performed.

An Official American Thoracic Society Statement: The Importance of Healthy Sleep. Recommendations and Future Priorities

Despite substantial public interest, few recommendations on the promotion of good sleep health exist to educate health care providers and the general public on the importance of sleep for overall health. The aim of this American Thoracic Society (ATS) statement is to provide a review of the current scientific literature to assist health care providers, especially pulmonologists and sleep physicians, in making recommendations to patients and the general public about the importance of achieving good quality and adequate quantity of sleep. ATS members were invited, based on their expertise in sleep medicine, and their conclusions were based on both empirical evidence identified after comprehensive literature review and clinical experience. We focus on sleep health in both children and adults, including the impact of occupation on sleep, the public health implications of drowsy driving, and the common sleep disorders of obstructive sleep apnea and insomnia. This ATS statement also delineates gaps in research and knowledge that should be addressed and lead to new focused research priorities to advance knowledge in sleep and sleep health. Good quality and quantity of sleep are essential for good health and overall quality of life; therefore a strong recommendation was made for the implementation of public education programs on the importance of sleep health.