Thinking Skills Program Research Articles

Teacher Perceptions of the Primary Education Thinking Skills Program

ABSTRACT The Primary Education Thinking Skills program (PETS) was implemented in three third grade classes and two kindergarten classes in a Title I school. The PETS program is a Talent Development program designed to teach students critical thinking skills and other gifted behaviors with the expressed goal of the program’s creators that the regular education teacher could then use the student behaviors elicited by the PETS curriculum to recommend them for the gifted screening process. Thus, our focus was to determine teacher attitudes regarding the ease of implementation, effectiveness of the program, and potential changes in their perceptions of high-ability students. These data were collected via semistructured interviews and analyzed qualitatively using content analysis. Results indicated that most teachers found the program easy to implement and perceived it as effective for a diverse group of learners.

How was teaching thinking adopted and diffused in Chinese primary schools? A qualitative study from principals’ perspectives

ABSTRACT This study aimed at gaining an in-depth understanding of how teaching thinking was adopted and diffused as an instructional innovation in primary schools from principals’ perspectives. Using Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory as a theoretical lens, one-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight Chinese primary school principals. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, open coded, and analysed by using constant comparison analysis. Results found:1) the principals’ prior knowledge about teaching thinking and their perceived characteristics of the thinking skills programme (TSP) prompted the principals to adopt the TSP in their schools; 2) recruiting seed teachers, offering direct thinking skills classes, and demonstrating cannon fodder classes played an important role in kicking off the TSP; 3) engaging in online and on-site training, infusing thinking skills into subjects, and routinizing lesson studies were essential in adapting the school to teaching thinking; 4) opening training and lesson studies to all teachers, and point-to-area peer influence were effective ways of diffusing teaching thinking in schools; 5) building positive feedback mechanisms, making teaching thinking a distinct feature of the school, collaborating with external partners, and forming organizational memory were effective measures of sustaining the diffusion. Implications for adopting and diffusing instructional innovations in schools were discussed.

Predictors of engagement, understanding and dropout from a community based cognitive skills programme

ABSTRACTAlthough non-completion is common in community based cognitive skills programmes, little is known about the variables associated with engagement, understanding and dropout from these programmes. In this study, it was hypothesised that personality disorder (PD), learning difficulties and elevated criminogenic need profiles would predict ratings of engagement, understanding and dropout. We did this in three stages. At the pre-programme stage, demographic, risk, personality, learning difficulty and criminogenic need data was obtained for 511 offenders under probation supervision in England, referred to a Thinking Skills Programme (TSP). At the 1 year follow up, all participants’ status as either completer, non- completer or non-starter were distinguished through probation records. For programme starters, facilitator ratings of engagement and understanding were obtained. Findings reported that non-completion was most strongly associated with Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD) and a history of self-harm or suicide attempts, which both predicted a three times greater likelihood of dropout. Lower engagement and understanding scores were predicted by difficulties with employment and relationships. Offenders with high levels of antisocial traits, a history of self-harm and elevated dynamic risk profiles show higher attrition rates and make limited progress on community based cognitive skills programmes. Implications for programme delivery and evaluation are discussed.

Do Parent Mental Illness and Family Living Arrangement Moderate the Effects of the Aussie Optimism Program on Depression and Anxiety in Children?

Parent mental illness and family living arrangement are associated with depression and anxiety in children, and may influence the effects of programs that aim to prevent these disorders. This study investigated whether these family context factors moderated the intervention effects of the enhanced Aussie Optimism Positive Thinking Skills program on depression and anxiety in primary school children. The intervention was a universal, cognitive-behavioral program, with a one hour session each week for 10 weeks, delivered by trained teachers. The participants were 502 children from 13 private schools, aged 9–11, with 347 in the intervention group and 155 in the control group. There were 267 females and 235 males. Data from 502 parents was also included. A cluster randomized controlled trial design was used, including eight intervention schools and five control schools. Depression and anxiety were assessed at pre-test, post-test, and 6-months follow-up. Information on parent mental illness and family living arrangement was collected through a parent questionnaire. The data was analyzed using covariance analysis with Generalized Linear Mixed Methods. At baseline, depressive and anxiety symptoms did not differ significantly based on parent mental illness. Symptoms of depression at baseline were significantly higher for children from a higher-risk family living arrangement, but anxiety symptoms were not. Parent mental illness and family living arrangement did not moderate the effects of the program on depression and anxiety at post-test or 6-months follow-up. Parent mental illness moderated the intervention effects on negative self-esteem, an aspect of depression, at post-test, with improvements seen only for children who did not have a parent with a mental illness. The findings indicate an association between family living arrangement and depressive symptoms in children. The findings suggest that the program is effective for children regardless of parent mental illness or family living arrangement, although parent mental illness has the capacity to influence the program's outcomes.

Effects of a Critical Thinking Skills Program on the Learning Motivation of Primary School Students

Learning motivation has a significant effect on student learning, which is a key determinant of academic performance and creativity. It is increasingly popular and important to cultivate learning motivation in schools. To consider this trend, a long-term intervention program named “Learn to Think” (LTT) was designed not only to improve students’ thinking ability but also to improve their learning motivation. The present study explored the effects of the LTT curriculum on primary school students’ learning motivation. The sample consisted of 158 Chinese primary school students, who were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Experimental students participated in the LTT curriculum for 4 years, with data collected via pretests, annual end-of-year assessments, and a delayed posttest administration 1 year after terminating the training. The results suggest that LTT had long-term transfer effects on the development of primary school students’ learning motivation, especially on deep motivation.

The realistic evaluation of an adapted thinking skills programme

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to describe a project reporting the evaluation of an adapted form of the thinking skills programme (TSP) with prisoners with intellectual disabilities. In particular, the utility of realistic evaluation is explored as a response to the difficulties in applying research-based interventions in practice and rolling out pilot projects that have been evaluated under specific conditions. Design/methodology/approach – Realistic evaluation involves the identification of context, mechanism and outcome as a structure for programme evaluation and this was applied to the development and implementation of adapted TSP (ATSP) in three English prisons. Findings – Findings are reported in respect of the three aspects of context, mechanism and outcome to demonstrate the utility of realistic evaluation. Contextual findings suggested that ATSP is effective with male prisoners representing a range of intellectual disabilities, who would otherwise be excluded from mainstream programmes. The programme did not establish effectiveness with women or in community settings. The prisons involved were of different levels of security, but all three prisons were actively involved in positive approaches to difference and diversity and support for people with intellectual disabilities. For mechanism it was noted that all involved in the pilot sites were highly motivated to participate in the project and they were also achieving high scores for general quality in programme delivery. The realistic evaluation framework suggests that, where these factors are not present, some caution about possible effectiveness should be exercised. The evaluation approach proved to be helpful in identifying relevant factors to be considered in the wider implementation of ATSP. Originality/value – This is a novel approach to programme evaluation in psychological therapies that was shown to be of value in identifying conditions under which pilot schemes can be extended to other parts of a service, and research on interventions for offenders with intellectual disabilities applied in practice.

An Investigation into the Role of Coping in Preventing Depression Associated with Perfectionism in Preadolescent Children.

The relationships between self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) and maladaptive and adaptive coping strategies and their collective impact on depression symptoms were examined in the context of a randomized controlled universal trial of the Aussie Optimism Positive Thinking Skills Program. Five hundred and forty-one children aged 8–12 completed a battery of self-reports, of which responses for measures of depression symptoms, perfectionism, and coping strategies were examined for the purposes of this study. Structural equation modeling tested whether coping mediated the effects of perfectionism on depression. Results indicated that SPP had both a direct and an indirect relationship with depression symptoms through a moderate association with maladaptive coping. Implications for prevention of depression were discussed and recommendations for future research were proposed.

Child’s Voice, Child’s Right: Is Philosophy for Children in Africa the Answer?

In this concept paper, we explore the notion of the child’s right to be heard, starting in the classroom. The idea that children have unique needs has paved the way for the admission that children have a similar spectrum of rights as adults do. The notion that children are valued as citizens, and have significant contributions to make now and in the future is the foundation of the path to listening to children’s voices. There has been mounting interest in the importance of listening to children’s voices and their points of view. Notably, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child has informed conceptions of children as capable, competent and agentic. Giving the child a voice from early childhood is possible if opportunities and environments are availed them, particularly during their early school years. However, the majority of children around the world are yet to realise their right to be heard. We posit and defend the introduction of the Matthew Lipman-initiated Philosophy for Children (P4C) programme in schools as a fertile means of nurturing children’s right to have their voices heard. P4C is a critical thinking skills programme designed to contribute to the development of rational, open-minded deliberation among young children, as befits a democratic society. Our argument is that P4C’s community of philosophical inquiry as pedagogy is the best approach for the development of a critical, open-minded and right-bearing citizen, capable of living according to democratic principles in twenty first century Africa.

The enhanced Aussie Optimism Positive Thinking Skills Program: The relationship between internalizing symptoms and family functioning in children aged 9-11 years old.

The family context plays a critical role in the health of the child. This was the first study to examine the usefulness of the General Functioning subscale of the Family Assessment Device (FAD-GF) in assessing family functioning and its relationship to internalizing symptoms in school-aged children aged between 9 and 11 years of age. Eight hundred and forty-seven year 4 and 5 students from 13 schools (607 intervention students, and 240 control students) participated in the Aussie Optimism Positive Thinking Skills Program (AO-PTS) – a universal school-based program targeting internalizing symptoms. Students rated how ‘healthy’ they perceived their family to be at pre-test and at 6-months follow-up. Although some aspects of validity and reliability could be improved, results indicated that perceptions of family functioning at pre-test were predictive of internalizing symptoms at the 6-months follow-up. The FAD-GF therefore showed promise as a potential measure of family functioning for children as young as 9 years old. Regardless of children’s pre-test levels of perceived family functioning, no intervention effects were found on the anxiety and depression scales; this finding suggests that child perceptions of family functioning may act as a general protective factor against internalizing symptomology.

The impact of a cognitive acceleration programme in science on students in an academically selective high school

This paper describes the impact of a thinking skills programme in science on the cognition of students in an academically selective high school. The research followed a sequential explanatory design with the collection and analysis of quantitative data in the first phase followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative data in the second phase. Participants were 582 Year 8 and Year 9 (ages 12–14) high school students and their science teachers from eight schools who participated in Thinking Science, a 2-year classroom intervention and teacher professional learning programme. The schools included one academically selective high school (n=144) and seven non-academically selective schools (n=438). Quantitative data were collected by Piagetian reasoning tasks administered to all students before and after the intervention. Qualitative data included interviews with the head of science and three participating science teachers from the academically selective school. Over the 2-year period, students from the academically selective school had a greater mean gain with a large effect size (d=0.995) when compared with the control (n=120) and when compared with other students who participated in the intervention with a medium effect size (d=0.687). The qualitative data indicated that science teachers in the academically selective school were committed to the intervention and explained how they had changed their pedagogy as a result of the professional learning programme. More specifically, the teachers developed teaching strategies specific to the characteristics of their academically talented students that enabled them to participate in thinking activities such as metacognition and social construction. In conclusion, Thinking Science was a worthwhile intervention for all participating students, but particularly for students in the academically selective school where teachers were able to adapt their pedagogy and the approach to suit their students.

Continuing Educational Needs of APHA Members Within the Professional Public Health Workforce

To examine the continuing education needs of and method of course delivery for American Public Health Association (APHA) members. The APHA Education Board developed a list of 37 potential continuing education courses, 20 of which were linked to course competencies. An electronic survey of 22 104 APHA members was conducted to determine members' priorities. Survey data included age, gender, race/ethnicity, highest academic degree obtained, workplace setting, educational needs, and preferred method of course delivery. Data were primarily analyzed using descriptive statistics. Demographic data, educational needs, and preferred method of course delivery. Respondents numbered 5058, with 3836 (75.8%) interested in continuing education. For those indicating an interest, approximately 6 course areas per person were identified. A number of specific course areas were emphasized, including Leadership and Systems Thinking Skills and Policy Development and Program Planning. More than 50% of respondents favored obtaining courses using an online or computer-based format. Of the 24% uninterested in continuing education, 78% were in the age range of 25 to 65 years. Although this study identified continuing education needs of a wide cross section of APHA members, the response rate was low. Additional surveys should be conducted periodically to update course offerings and identify gaps in workforce training. Reasons for any disinterest in continuing education in public health should be explored.

The efficacy of the enhanced Aussie Optimism Positive Thinking Skills Program in improving social and emotional learning in middle childhood.

The aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of the modified and enhanced Aussie Optimism Positive Thinking Skills Program (AO-PTS) on Year 4 and 5 children's social and emotional learning (SEL) skills. AO-PTS is a universal-school based program that is implemented by class teachers as part of regular school curricula and was developed for the prevention of depression and anxiety. The study comprised a total of 683 Year 4 and 5 students from 10 private primary schools in Western Australia. Students were assessed on two subscales of emotional attribution at school whilst parents reported on their children's externalizing and internalizing problems outside of school and at home. Two analyses were conducted: seven intervention schools were assessed at pre- and post-test (Analysis 1) and pre-post change in three intervention schools were compared to pre-post change in three matched control schools (Analysis 2). Results from Analysis 1 showed that the intervention children had increased in their overall emotional attribution accuracy and decreased in total difficulties and hyperactivity; Results from Analysis 2 revealed no intervention effect on emotional attribution accuracy or internalizing or externalizing problems. These findings suggest that the enhanced AO-PTS's effects on SEL were not evident in the short-term period after intervention. The non-significant findings and future directions for AO-PTS research and program modification were discussed.

The development and preliminary evaluation of a thinking skills programme for adults with learning disabilities at risk of offending

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to outline and evaluate the development of a thinking skills programme for adults with learning disabilities at risk of offending.Design/methodology/approach– The programme was evaluated over three years using self-report clinical measures related to treatment targets and feedback from participants.Findings– Results showed a statistically significant improvement in general empathy (t=1.800, df=15,p=<0.05) and perspective taking (t=1.898, df=15,p=<0.05). Improvement in impulsivity and locus of control was not significant. Feedback from service users was positive.Practical implications– Findings suggest that thinking skills programmes can be of benefit to adults with learning disabilities at risk of offending.Originality/value– There is a need to provide opportunities for adults with learning disabilities to address generic deficits and factors supporting offending behaviour and to increase readiness for offence-specific treatment.

Does the Thinking Skills Programme have a positive effect on prison behaviour?

Purpose:The effect of the Thinking Skills Programme (TSP) on prison behaviour and psychometric outcomes was evaluated. Different factors were evaluated to assess if they had an impact on the outcomesMethod:Prison behaviour was analysed for those who had completed TSP at a Young Offenders Institute (N=199). Offence type, sentence type, risk level, need for the programme and treatment readiness were assessed to identify their impact. Psychometrics were analysed to assess for clinically significant change and the factors above were also considered. Findings of behaviour analysis were compared to findings for psychometric analysis to check for correlations.Results:Behaviour significantly improved six months after completion of TSP. Behaviour at the end of the course and sentence type significantly contributed towards this. The most clinically significant change was found on the impulsivity measure. Three of the measures had factors which significantly contributed towards change. There were small correlations between behaviour change and clinically significant change.Conclusion:The results demonstrate that prison behaviour in Young Offenders is improved six months after completing TSP and that some clinically significant change is shown.

'Philosophy for children' as creating the zone of proximal development

In this paper, we analyze the conception, objectives and methodology of the 'Philosophy for Children', a programme aimed at fostering critical thinking in children aged five to eighteen. The analysis is based on the key concepts and principles of Vygotsky's developmental theory. We believe that discussing the manner in which these concepts and principles are embodied in one successful and influential thinking skills programme could enhance the concept of the zone of proximal development, as well as our understanding of the processes through which cognitive competencies are co-constructed. The practical relevance of the analysis refers to a controversial issue of whether higher-order cognitive skills can be fostered at a young age. The analysis reveals that Lipman has creatively applied Vygotsky's idea of the formative role of spontaneous and scientific concepts interaction, thus focusing on the metacognitive development. Consequently, the methodological procedures are language-based, using the narrative, dialogical and rational forms of discourse as mediation tools for developing the skills of logical reasoning and critical thinking. Philosophical novels, as an innovative educational genre, exemplify Lipman's contribution to enriching the concept of direct cultural interaction, which has generally been less studied within the socio-cultural approach. The analysis of gradual transformation of group discussion, from monological and mostly anegdotical, through genuine dialogical exchanges, to mastering the procedures and skills of critical dialogue, is one of the most plausible accounts of Vygotsky's genetic law. The specific role of the teacher, who indirectly guides the discussion through the use of Socratic questioning, expands the concept of finely tuned support and the strategies for creating the zone of proximal development in educational context.

Reducing depression in 9–10 year old children in low SES schools: A longitudinal universal randomized controlled trial

The Aussie Optimism: Positive Thinking Skills Program (AOP-PTS) is an innovative curriculum-based mental health promotion program based on cognitive and behavioural strategies. The program is aimed at preventing depressive and anxiety symptoms and disorders in middle primary school children aged 9–10 years. Students from 22 low SES primary schools (N = 910) were randomly assigned to an intervention or a control group and assessed at baseline, post-test, 6 months and 18 months. The intervention group received the program implemented by teachers and the control group received their regular Health Education curriculum. Students completed questionnaires on depression, anxiety, and attribution style. At risk students were further assessed with the computerised Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents. Parents reported on their children's externalising and internalising problems at home. Children in the intervention condition reported a significant pre-post reduction in depressive symptoms, and there was a significant pre-post reduction in parent-reported emotional difficulties which was maintained at 6 month follow-up; no changes were evident in the control group. Both groups showed significant improvements in child-reported anxiety and attribution style, and significant improvements in parent-reported pro-social behaviours. For both groups, there were no significant post-baseline changes in incidence and recovery rates for depression, anxiety, or internalising symptoms. These findings suggest that AOP-PTS has the potential to treat depressive symptomatology in the immediate term but the effects were not sustained. There is also evidence of improved emotional resilience up to 6 months following the program. Further follow-up to investigate longer term effects is needed.

An Evaluation of the HM Prison Service “Thinking Skills Programme” Using Psychometric Assessments

The most widely implemented offending behaviour programme in the United Kingdom was Enhanced Thinking Skills (ETS), a cognitive-behavioural group intervention that aimed to develop participant's general cognitive skills. A new offending behaviour programme has been developed to replace ETS: the Thinking Skills Programme (TSP). This study reports an evaluation of the effectiveness of TSP using psychometric assessments. Phasing of the two programmes created an opportunity to compare the two programmes consecutively. Forty participants, 20 from each programme, completed a range of psychometric measures to examine cognition, attitudes, and thinking styles. Analysis of pre- and post-programme psychometric results indicated that participants of TSP demonstrated improvements on 14 of the 15 scales, 9 of which were statistically significant. Effect sizes between pre-post results were generally greater for TSP than ETS, demonstrating that TSP had a more positive impact on the thinking styles and attitudes of participants than the ETS programme.

Prevention of internalizing disorders in 9–10 year old children: efficacy of the Aussie Optimism Positive Thinking Skills Program at 30-month follow-up

The Aussie Optimism: Positive Thinking Skills Program (AOPTP) is a school-based prevention program aimed at addressing anxious and depressive symptoms in children aged 9–10 years. Nine-hundred and ten students from 22 Australian primary schools situated in low socio-economic areas were randomly assigned to either an intervention or control group, and assessed at a 30-month follow up. Those in the intervention group received the AOPTP program, where the control group continued to receive the regular health education course. Students completed self-report measures regarding their levels of depression, anxiety, and attribution style. Parents also reported on their children's externalizing and internalizing problems outside of school. There were no significant differences between groups in regard to anxiety or depression, as well as no significant differences in attributional styles. Parents reported significantly less hyperactive behaviors from children in the intervention group. This finding suggests that AOP-PTS has the capacity to treat externalizing problems at a medium term effect. The decrease in the externalizing problems provides evidence of a partial medium term intervention effect. Future studies should continue to evaluate the program at a long term follow up.

The effectiveness of an enhanced thinking skills programme in offenders with antisocial personality traits

Although evidence is emerging that enhanced thinking skills (ETS) interventions are effective in reducing recidivism in prisoners, there is limited evidence supporting the effectiveness of ETS improving behaviour and functioning in prisoners with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) traits. This study investigated the effectiveness of a group ETS programme in improving antisocial attitudes, anger regulation and social problem-solving skills in offenders with traits diagnostic of ASPD. A controlled trial was conducted comparing ETS programme with treatment as usual (TAU). Outcome measures were the Antisocial Personality Questionnaire, the Novaco Anger Scale and the Social Problem-Solving Inventory-Short Form. Significant improvements in the ETS group on all of the outcome measures were evident, when compared to TAU group. This study provides evidence that cognitive skills programmes based on ETS improve functioning in offenders with traits diagnostic of ASPD. The ETS programmes may be a therapeutic option when working with this historically difficult to treat group. However, further research is required that includes a randomised design, more objective behavioural outcome measures and a longer follow-up period.

Understanding metacognition through the use of pupil views templates: Pupil views of Learning to Learn

As part of the Learning to Learn Phase 3 Evaluation [for full detail see Higgins, S., Wall, K., Baumfield, V., Hall, E., Leat, D., Moseley, D., et al. (2007). Learning to Learn in Schools Phase 3 Evaluation: Final Report. London: Campaign for Learning. Available at: www.campaignforlearning.org.uk; Higgins, S., Wall, K., Falzon, C., Hall, E., Leat, D., Baumfield, V., et al. (2005). Learning to Learn in Schools Phase 3 Evaluation Year One Final Report. London: Campaign for Learning. Available at: http://www.campaignforlearning.org.uk; Higgins, S., Wall, K., Baumfield, V., Hall, E., Leat, D., Woolner, P. et al. (2006). Learning to Learn in Schools Phase 3 Evaluation: Year Two Report. London: Campaign for Learning. Available at: http://www.campaignforlearning.org.uk] teachers across three Local Authorities in England were supported in using an approach fitting ideas of professional enquiry through action research [Baumfield, V., Hall, E., & Wall, K. (2008). Action research in the classroom. London: Sage]. In this complex project, teachers have explored different innovations that they believe to fit under the umbrella term of Learning to Learn, implementing and investigating approaches ranging from cooperative learning [Kagan, S. (2001). Cooperative learning. Kagan Publishing. www.Kaganonline.com] to Assessment for Learning [Black, P. J. & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education, 5, 7–73] to Thinking Skills [Baumfield, V. & Higgins, S. (1997). ‘But no one has maths at a party: Pupils’ reasoning strategies in a thinking skills programme. Curriculum, 18(3), 140–148]. As part of these enquiries teachers have increasingly involved pupils and their perspective for providing critical insight to processes associated with Learning to Learn. This corresponds to debates around pupil voice [for example, Flutter, J. & Ruddock, J. (2004). Consulting pupils: What's in it for schools? London: Routledge Falmer], and also the fact that teachers in the project see pupils as having characteristics that can support the development of a Learning to Learn philosophy [Hall, E., Leat, D., Wall, K., Higgins, S., & Edwards, G. (2006) Learning to Learn: Teacher research in the zone of proximal development. Teacher Development, 10(2)] This paper will use the method of pupil views templates [Wall, K. & Higgins, S. (2006). Facilitating and supporting talk with pupils about metacognition: A research and learning tool. International Journal of Research and Methods in Education, 29(1), 39–53] used by teachers as a pragmatic tool [Baumfield, V., Hall, E., Higgins, S., & Wall, K. (2007). Tools for enquiry and the role of feedback in teachers’ learning. Paper presented at the European Association for Research in Learning and Instruction Conference] to research pupils’ perspectives of Learning to Learn and the processes they perceive to be involved. It will use an analysis frame to examine and explore data about pupils’ declarative knowledge of the process of learning and therefore aspects of their metacognitive knowledge and skilfulness [Veenman, M. V. J. & Spaans, M. A. (2005). Relation between intellectual and metacognitive skills: Age and task difference. Learning and Individual Differences, 15, 159–176].