Thin-walled Steel Research Articles

Bond-Slip Behavior Between C-Shaped Steel and Foamed Concrete in CTS Composite Structural Members

The bond-slip behavior between cold-formed thin-walled steel (CTS) and foamed concrete (FC) is a critical issue in the mechanical performance of FC-filled CTS composite wall structures. Thus, this study provides experimental and theoretical research on the bond-slip behavior between CTS and FC. A total of eleven specimens were tested using push-out configurations, considering the number of web holes, foamed concrete (FC) strength, anchorage length, and CTS section splice form. A constitutive model for bond-slip was proposed, and the regression formulas for accurately predicting the characteristic bond strength between CTS and foamed concrete were established. A finite element model was developed to investigate the bond-slip mechanism at the interface between CTS and FC. The bond-slip constitutive model accurately fits the experimental and finite element results. The results indicate that the ultimate bond strength of the specimens increases with the number of web holes; when the number of web holes reaches two, the ultimate bond strength is 155.4% of that of the non-perforated specimens. As the concrete strength increases from 3.43 MPa to 11.26 MPa, the ultimate bond strength of specimens with two web holes improves by 23.1%, while non-perforated specimens have a 54.7% enhancement. When the anchorage length is extended from 200 mm to 400 mm, the ultimate bond strength decreases by 29.3%. Additionally, when steel sections are joined in a double-span I form, the bond strength increases by 91.6% and 95.8% compared to the single-span form and the double-span box form, respectively.

Axial compressive behavior and capacity prediction of concrete-filled cold-formed lipped channel PEC stub columns

The stability and capacity of thin-walled steel columns can be considerably upgraded by filling concrete into hollow spaces surrounded by cold-formed lipped channel (CLC) and external battens. However, there is limited experimental data available, especially for the axial compression behavior of concrete-filled CLC partially encased composite (PEC) columns. This paper aims to investigate the compressive behavior of CLC-PEC short columns and presents an analytical model for predicting the axial capacity of the column. The study explores the influences of cross-sectional dimensions and external batten plate configurations on the compressive performance of CLC-PEC columns through axial compression tests conducted on 12 short column specimens. The results indicate that the failure modes of the specimens involve localized concrete spalling on the exposed side at the lower part of the column, along with a elephant foot-shaped buckling of the cold-formed steel lipped channel. The damage surface of the confined concrete was obtained by circumferential cutting of the buckling location. The findings highlight the significant influence of the character of the CLC section on the ineffectively confined area at the failure surface, with a dumbbell-shaped effective confinement zone revealing the presence of a highly confined area. Based on the calibrated failure surfaces, a numerical model-based study of the axial stress distribution in the concrete core was then carried out to estimate the confinement effect of the columns under peak loading. The study employed multiple regression analysis to quantify the area ratio of the confined zone to the concrete core based on finite element analysis (FEA) results from 143 CLC-PEC columns. The proposed model was evaluated against test results and found to be more reliable than axial compression loads based on the superposition strength method. The proposed axial capacity of short columns takes into account the slenderness ratio of each member.

Resistance of the Steel Lap Joints Connected by Spot Welding and Brazing

Welding technologies are constantly evolving, and their applicability is expanding, considering also the construction domain. Steel structures benefit from the advances in welding technologies due to the use of thin gauge steel sheets which can now be connected at high quality and automatically. The resistance of the connection between the thin steel sheets is crucial for the durability and safety of a structure made of built-up thin-walled cold-formed steel elements. Generally, self-drilling screws or bolts are used for the connection between thin-walled elements, but the quantity of time and manpower necessary for a large number of connections demands an improved solution. Conventional welding techniques are unsuitable for joining thin sheets, ranging from 0.4 to 1.0 mm to thicker ones measuring 1.0 to 3.5 mm. This article compares the results of an experimental investigation into lap joints connected by spot welding and MIG brazing with the design code provisions. The study examines single-lap joints in steel sheets of 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 mm thickness, connected using these welding technologies. The results obtained are then compared with analytical relations and processed according to EN 1990. Depending on the thickness of the connected sheets, spot welding can lead to two failure modes: button pull-out fracture and interfacial fracture. MIG brazing, a welding technology that deposits material below the melting point of the base material, is known for its advantages, such as low energy consumption, spatter-free operation, high welding speed, and compatibility with thin sheet metals. However, its application in the structural engineering of cold-formed elements lacks documentation. In the study, the MIG brazed specimens failed in the heat-affected zone of the connection. The results indicate the dependence of the spot weld lap joint resistance on the connected sheets' thickness, while the resistance of the MIG brazed lap joints is influenced by the minimum thickness of the connected steel sheet. The study aims to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed solutions, evaluate their performance, and establish the limits of their applicability. A statistical interpretation of the results highlights the precision and reliability of joint resistance.

Study on heat transfer behavior of CFS-PSB composite walls

The cold-formed thin-walled steel (CFS)-paper straw board (PSB) composite walls takes as the research object. The thermal performance of the wall was analyzed by the building heat transfer theory and the finite element analysis software ANSYS, explored the influence of relevant parameters on heat transfer coefficient of composite wall and proposed supplementary correction coefficient for applying the type of composite walls. The heat flux density field, temperature distribution field, node temperature, and heat transfer coefficient of the walls were also obtained. The specific parameters analyzed using this model mainly included the insulation material, web height, thickness of the section steel, width of the flange, length of the hole, number of hole rows, and horizontal and longitudinal spacing of the holes. The findings show that an increase in the web height reduces the heat transfer coefficient of the composite wall, which is conducive to improving the thermal insulation performance of the walls. The CFS-PSB composite wall with a web opening can significantly improve the heat transfer performance of the wall, reduce heat loss, and control the local thermal bridging phenomenon. The hole length, specific gravity of the openings, and number of openings were the main parameters affecting the thermal insulation performance of the walls.

Introduction to the Investigation of reproduction of the real geometry of UBM panels

The article concisely describes UBM technology (Ultimate Building Machine), that can be used as a solution for buildings and roof structures. The structure of this technology is made of double corrugated thin-walled steel profiles manufactured on the construction site by a self-contained UBM manufacturing factory on wheels. These panels serve as both the building envelope and the structural system. The specificity of the construction poses many design problems, especially the determination of the strength parameters and stiffness of the double-corrugated panels from which the structure is made. The article presents the results of spatial scanning tests of double-corrugated steel sheets, which were carried out using commonly available 3D scanning devices: Leica 3D Disto and MagiScan app. Additionally, results of numerical analyses performed on scanned samples and a comparison of these results with preliminary laboratory tests have been presented in the article. The purpose of scanning was to obtain an accurate and real geometry of the UBM panels, to implement it into a numerical software, and then to perform numerical analyses. Commonly available 3D scanning devices were used because using advanced 3D scanners is not popular nowadays for economic reasons, and hand-built geometric models pose a lot of problems and are not accurate enough. Promising results were obtained, which form the basis for further research.

Microstructural Investigation and Mechanical Properties of Resistance Spot Welding Joints of Mild Steel Sheets

Due to its high productivity, low cost, and increased work efficiency, resistance spot welding (RSW) can instantly join two or more steel sheets and it is widely used in the automotive industry and lately in the manufacturing of thin-walled cold-formed steel constructions. However, the RSW of zinc-coated mild steel sheets presents metallurgical challenges, especially when different thickness combinations are used. Therefore, in the present paper a resistance welding machine was used which uses direct current (MFDC) inverter technology combined with SMART AUTOSET technology to weld S250 GD and S350 GD galvanised mild steel sheets with different thicknesses. It is well known that, due to the elevated temperature that occurs during the welding process, followed by rapid cooling, defects such as cracking, porosity, lack of fusion, and an increased amount of brittle phases affect the welding quality. Therefore, the influence of the RSW process parameters established by an automatic sequence on the nugget geometry, microstructure, and mechanical properties was investigated. The phase transformations that took place during the heating-cooling cycle were analysed in detail through metallographic studies. The results showed that the microstructure of the weld nuggets was similar, characterised by columnar grains elongated in the direction of heat evacuation. Nevertheless, there were differences in terms of phase dispersion, defects and mechanical properties that have been linked to the RSW process parameters.

Integrated Control of Thermal Residual Stress and Mechanical Properties by Adjusting Pulse-Wave Direct Energy Deposition.

Directed energy deposition with laser beam (DED-LB) components experience significant residual stress due to rapid heating and cooling cycles. Excessive residual tensile stress can lead to cracking in the deposited sample, resulting in service failure. This study utilized digital image correlation (DIC) and thermal imaging to observe the in situ temporal evolution of strain and temperature gradients across all layers of a deposited 316 L stainless steel thin wall during DED-LB. Both continuous-wave (CW) and pulsed-wave (PW) laser modes were employed. Additionally, the characteristics of thermal cracks and geometric dislocation density were examined. The results reveal that PW mode generates a lower temperature gradient, which in turn reduces thermal strain. In CW mode, the temperature-stress relationship curve of the additive manufacturing sample enters the "brittleness temperature zone", leading to the formation of numerous hot cracks. In contrast, PW mode samples are almost free of cracks, as the metal avoids crack-sensitive regions during solidification, thereby minimizing hot crack formation. Overall, these factors collectively contribute to reduced residual stress and improved mechanical properties through the adjustment of pulsed-wave laser deposition.

Dynamic performance investigations of a full-scale unanchored thin-walled steel fluid storage tank via shake table tests

Theoretical models proposed in the literature and seismic design codes make the basis of analysis and the design procedures of fluid storage tanks. These models are derived based on many simplified and approximate assumptions. Under realistic conditions, however, different factors cause violation of these assumptions, causing the fluid flow and fluid–structure interaction (FSI) to diverge from theories. In this research work, 38 swept-sine tests and 63 seismic ground motions were applied to a full-scale highly flexible unanchored thin-walled stainless steel fluid tank. The experimental natural frequencies of the system for three different aspect ratios of 2.1, 2.8, and 3.5 were calculated and compared with the theoretical ones. Damping ratios for different modes were calculated using the half-power bandwidth analysis. Experimental results revealed discrepancies between the theoretical and experimentally detected natural frequencies, especially for the convective mode. Closer matches were found for the aspect ratios of 2.8 and 3.5, for the impulsive mode. Acceleration amplification factors at different heights of the shell were calculated which showed a nonlinear behaviour with a descending trend from the base to the mid-height and then an ascending one towards the fluid surface. Maximum acceleration amplification factor occurred at the surface of the fluid. The axial strains around the base are maximum and decrease bi-linearly towards the upper heights of the shell. Effects of the input excitation frequency content over the structural responses of the system were examined. Frequency characteristics of the input excitation considerably affected the maximum acceleration amplification factors and axial strains in the shell.

Tensile and cracking behavior of thin-walled 316Ti austenitic steel after exposure to 550 °C lead-bismuth eutectic with different oxygen concentration

The corrosion evolution of 316Ti steel in 550 °C lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE) with oxygen concentrations (Co) of 5 × 10−6 wt% and 5 × 10−8 wt% and their impact on the tensile behavior were investigated in this study. The steel primarily underwent oxidation at Co of 5 × 10−6 wt%, slightly influencing the tensile strength and elongation of specimen within 1000 h exposure. In contrast, the structural integrity and tensile strength of specimen were significantly deteriorated at Co of 5 × 10−8 wt% where the steel mainly experienced dissolution corrosion. The cracking behaviors of oxide layer and ferrite layer, and their influences on the failure of thin-walled specimen were discussed. Special concerns should be raised on the detrimental effect of localized corrosion, such as intergranular oxidation, LBE-wetted precipitate bands and dissolution pits, since cracks are expected to initiate easily in these zones and propagate into steel matrix under tension, potentially leading to the premature failure of thin-walled components.

Development of Laminated Egg-Shaped Tsunami Shelter Structure Made of Steel-Cushioning-Steel

When a tsunami is caused by an earthquake or other event, spherical shelters are developed to protect people from the tsunami. This study proposes a new egg-shaped laminated tsunami shelter with a buffer layer to improve the functionality of traditional spherical shelters. The inner and outer shells of this shelter are made from thin-walled stainless steel, using the integral hydro bulge forming (IHBF) process. The space between these two layers was filled with urethane foam, providing an elastic buffer. This resulted in a laminated egg-shaped structure designed for tsunami protection. To verify the proposed laminated egg-shaped tsunami shelter and its processing method, an egg-shaped shell with an external shape (length 660 mm, width 493 mm) was fabricated using a 1.0 mm thick stainless plate, and a laminated egg-shaped tsunami shelter with a 25 mm thick intermediate layer made of urethane foam was fabricated. The shape accuracy of the processed egg-shaped laminated tsunami shelter structure was measured, and the maximum error between the surface shape of the molded egg-shaped shell and the true egg shape was -4.13 mm, and the relative error to the maximum radius of the egg shape of 246.5 mm was -1.68%. In addition, to assess the buffering effect under external impact loads, acceleration sensors were attached to both the inner and outer layers of the fabricated egg-shaped laminated tsunami shelters. A hammer was used to apply an impact load to the outer layer, and the response acceleration values recorded by the sensors on both layers were compared. It was found that the response acceleration of the inner layer was 15.81% lower than that of the outer layer.

SiC Reinforced AISI 434L Stainless Steel Thin-Wall Structure Fabrication by TIG-Aided Powder Bed Fusion Arc Additive Manufacturing (TIG PBF-AAM) Method

SiC Reinforced AISI 434L Stainless Steel Thin-Wall Structure Fabrication by TIG-Aided Powder Bed Fusion Arc Additive Manufacturing (TIG PBF-AAM) Method

Analytical and numerical predictions of elastoplastic buckling behaviors of the subsea lined pipelines with ovality defects under hydrostatic pressure

The subsea pipelines may deteriorate and/or be cracked after a long period of service. A cost-effective trenchless rehabilitation technology is to install a thin-walled steel liner inside the pipelines. However, elliptical defects may occur in the liner due to issues such as insufficient inflation, deformation of the host pipelines, and joint misalignment in practical engineering. Thus, this study aims to develop a systematic analytical model and numerical model for the elastic and inelastic buckling behaviors of the thin-walled oval steel liner, respectively. An admissible radial displacement function is introduced to describe the single-lobe deformation of the liner. The governing equations are established to trace the equilibrium paths by applying the theory of thin-walled shells and the principle of minimum potential energy. A two-dimensional finite element model is developed for the elastic and inelastic buckling performance of the liner. The analytical solutions of elastic buckling are in good agreement with other closed-form solutions, numerical results, and respective test results available in the literature. Finally, parametric evaluations are carried out in terms of ovality, non-uniform liner-pipeline gap, internal pressure, and liner yield strength.

Buckling behavior of thin-walled cold-formed steel latticed column with lacings under axial compression

Extensive research has been undertaken on built-up cold-formed steel (CFS) column with I-shaped or box-shaped section. However, there has been little attention given to lattice CFS columns, particularly regarding their buckling performance and the design methods for determining buckling capacity. This paper proposes a latticed CFS column, formed by combining two G-shaped (complex edge stiffener) channels using lacings (LCCFS). Eighteen LCCFS columns were tested under axial compression, divided into two groups with web widths of 75 mm and 200 mm. The experimental results demonstrated that no distortional buckling failure occurred in the G-shaped channels of all specimens, mainly due to the constraint provided by lacings on the flanges. A general consistency in the ultimate bearing capacities and failure modes was observed among duplicate specimens. Specimens with a small slenderness ratio predominantly experienced local buckling failure, leading to a more abrupt failure. In contrast, specimens characterized by a large slenderness ratio primarily demonstrated failure due to global buckling. The specimens with larger web width-to-thickness ratios exhibited earlier and more pronounced local buckling, resulting in a reduction in axial compressive stiffness. Furthermore, FE models have been developed to analyze the effects of different parameters on the axial compressive buckling performance of LCCFS columns. The existing direct strength method exhibited notable deviations in predicting axial compressive buckling capacity of LCCFS column, which are deemed unsatisfactory. Based on direct strength method, a method was proposed for determining the axial compressive buckling capacity of LCCFS column.

Life-cycle seismic performance of bridges with thin-walled steel piers under bi-directional excitations

In corrosive environments, steel bridges demonstrate time-dependent seismic performance and varied directional responses to bi-directional excitation at different life-cycle stages. However, current seismic assessment methods for bridges have not adequately addressed the time-dependent effects of bi-directional excitation directionality on seismic responses throughout their entire life cycle. Thus, this study aims to investigate the time-varying directional effects of bi-directional seismic excitations on steel bridges with multiple parameters and to propose a method for predicting the range of critical incident angles while considering the aging effects of bridges. Initially, time-dependent functions that characterize steel corrosion are integrated into multiscale finite element models of the steel bridges to simulate corrosion progression across their life-cycle stages. Subsequently, a quantitative analysis of the bi-directional seismic response of steel bridges is conducted throughout their life cycle, accounting for the directionality of seismic excitation. Finally, a method and process for predicting the range of time-varying bi-directional critical incident angles with 95 % probability are derived by fitting the statistical probability distribution boundary values of the critical incident angle deviation index. The study's findings indicate that the aging effects of steel bridges amplify the displacement response under bi-directional seismic excitation, with the maximum displacement response difference exceeds 40 %. The service time may increase the sensitivity of steel bridges to changes in incident angles, potentially amplifying the displacement response by a factor of 1.69. The study's findings highlight the importance of considering aging effects and bi-directional excitation directionality in bridge seismic assessments.

Rapid design method for composite emergency steel piers with thin-walled steel tube framework and discussion on "temporary-permanent" transition

To address the conflict between the reserve of repair materials for existing bridge piers and the demands for emergency repairs, as well as the challenge of converting temporary emergency structures into permanent ones without significant disassembly, a novel composite emergency steel pier has been developed. This pier utilizes commonly available thin-walled steel tube sections as the framework, I-beams as the connecting elements, and incorporates a "temporary-permanent" transition function. Taking the emergency steel pier for medium-height bridge piers in high-speed rail systems as an example, this study introduces three evaluation metrics—security coefficient (n), stability coefficient k), and variation coefficient (V)—analyzing the factors influencing the design and application thresholds of the emergency steel piers from perspectives of strength, stability, and load distribution uniformity. Based on this, a rapid design method for composite emergency steel piers with thin-walled steel tube frameworks that does not require numerical simulation has been developed and experimentally validated. Research findings indicate that when used for the emergency repair of medium-height or lower bridge piers in high-speed railways, the column line stiffness of the thin-walled steel tube framework composite emergency steel piers should range between 0.34 × 10 exp7 kN/mm to 4.15 × 10 exp7 kN/mm. The transverse and longitudinal spacing of the columns should be 1 m to 3 m and 1.5 m to 3 m respectively. The line stiffness of the plinth beams I and II should be greater than 0.69 kN/mm and 1.01 kN/mm respectively. Within these parameter ranges, the emergency steel pier will not experience strength failure or instability, and the load distribution among the columns remains uniformly favorable. In applications to other scenarios, the rapid generation of composite emergency steel piers with thin-walled steel tube frameworks can be achieved by following three steps: parameter selection and structural configuration determination, calculation of the pier-beam linear stiffness ratio, and criterion-based result verification. The rapid design and implementation of composite emergency steel piers help alleviate the contradiction between material stockpiling and repair demands. Furthermore, the pre-designed "temporary-permanent" transition functionality facilitates integrated operations for emergency repairs and permanent restorations.

Nominal Flexural Strength of Thin-walled Steel Girders with Deviators Pre-stressed by Rectilinear Cables

Nominal Flexural Strength of Thin-walled Steel Girders with Deviators Pre-stressed by Rectilinear Cables

Experimental Study and Design Method of Cold-Formed Thin-Walled Steel Unequal-Leg Angles under Axial Compression

An experimental study of cold-formed thin-walled steel unequal-leg angles (CFTWS-ULAs) under axially oriented pressure is presented in this paper. Firstly, the initial imperfections and material properties of the angle specimens were measured in detail. The angle specimens were tested under fixed-ended conditions. The results of the experiments showed that the angle specimens with small slenderness ratios were susceptible to local buckling, the angle specimens whose legs had high slenderness ratios and low width–thickness ratios were found to easily suffer from the occurrence of flexural buckling, and the angle specimens whose legs had high width–thickness ratios were found to easily suffer from the occurrence of interactive buckling between local buckling and flexural buckling. The finite element analysis of the ULAs was conducted using ABAQUS6.14 finite element software by creating a model. The buckling modes and ultimate bearing capacities of the test specimens were compared, and the finite element analysis verified that the established model built using the finite element is credible and subsequent parametric analysis was performed. The slenderness ratio had the most significant impact on the ultimate bearing capacities of the unequal-leg angles, as indicated by the analysis results. When the width–thickness ratio and the width ratio of the legs fell within a specific range, the ultimate bearing capacities of the unequal-leg angles increased as the width–thickness ratio and the width ratio of the legs increased. Finally, the comparison results showed that the design strengths predicted by the specifications were very conservative, because the local buckling and torsional buckling were calculated at the same time. Therefore, a recommendation was proposed that the calculation of the load-carrying capacity of an unequal-leg angle should ignore torsional buckling.

Thin-walled FRP-concrete-steel tubular tower with a top mass block subjected to lateral impact loading: Experimental study and FE analysis

Thin-walled hollow steel tube towers (HSTs), frequently utilized as a wind turbine tower, are facing challenges such as corrosion and local buckling in their service life. To enhance the anti-corrosion capacity and local buckling resistance, an FRP tube and an annular concrete layer can be employed to protect the HST, thus forming a novel member: thin-walled FRP-concrete-steel tubular towers (TW-FCSTs). Using a horizontal vehicle impact system, this study investigated the impact behavior of five large-scale TW-FCSTs, each with a top mass block to mimic the rotor and nacelle of wind turbine. All specimens were designed with a large diameter (300 mm) and a large void ratio (0.73 or 0.82). The experimental results revealed that: (1) Under lateral impact loading, TW-FCSTs displayed a global flexural failure mode, accompanied by localized concavity damage; (2) The inertial effect was enlarged by the top mass block, affecting the dynamic response of TW-FCSTs; (3) the increase of steel thickness led to higher energy dissipation but lower local deformation; (4) the increase of void ratio resulted in larger local deformation but smaller lateral global displacement. Finally, based on LS-DYNA, FE models were utilized to simulate the dynamic responses of TW-FCSTs with a top mass block.

Behavior of cross-shaped stiffened concrete-filled steel tubular stub columns after fire exposure

The cross-shaped stiffened concrete-filled steel tubular stub column is constructed by incorporating steel reinforcement ribs into the traditional cross-shaped design, which helps delay the buckling of the steel tube and enhances its restraining effect on the concrete. However, existing standards and research proposed design methods for estimating the post-fire bearing capacity of steel reinforced concrete stub columns are primarily applicable to the ordinary steel tubes with conventional thickness and sections. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the axial compressive properties of high-strength concrete stub columns with irregular thin-walled steel tubes after exposure to fire, which can contribute to their potential future application. Effects of various experimental parameters, such as heating time, width-thickness ratio, and longitudinal spacing of stiffeners were investigated. In total one specimen subjected to ambient temperature and eight cross-shaped stiffened concrete-filled steel tubular stub columns subjected to fire conditions were prepared for measuring temperature-time curves of specimens during ISO-834 standard fire, load-displacement curves, load-transverse, and longitudinal strain curves of specimens under axial compression loading. The failure modes of the specimens were recorded, and the influence of each parameter on the post-fire mechanical properties of the specimens was analyzed based on the experimental results. ABAQUS software was utilized to develop a model for post-fire analysis, which was validated by comparing it with experimental data. After validation, the model was used to analyze the underlying mechanism, and a comprehensive parametric study of members was conducted. Based on the results of the parametric study and the model developed for calculating bearing capacity of the cross-shaped stiffened concrete-filled steel tube stub column at ambient temperature, a simplified equation accounting for the effects of elevated temperature was proposed to predict the residual bearing capacity of the cross-shaped stiffened concrete-filled steel tube stub column after fire exposure. The average error between the simplified formula and the finite element simulation results is 0.925, and the mean square error is 0.085.

Verification of Numerical Models of High Thin-Walled Cold-Formed Steel Purlins.

High thin-walled cold-formed steel purlins of the Z cross section are important elements of large-span steel structures in the construction industry. The present numerical study uses the finite element method to analyse the 300 mm and 350 mm high Z cross sections in-depth. The prepared numerical models are verified and validated at several levels with experiments that have been previously published. Significant agreement between the numerical models and the experimental results regarding Mises stress, proportional strain, failure mode, and force-deformation diagram have been obtained. With the verification, the presented procedure and partial findings can be applied to other similar problems. The results can be used to help research and corporate groups optimise the structural design of cold-formed thin-walled steel structures.