Nuclear War Research Articles

Breaking the impasse: the case for establishing a no first nuclear threat norm

ABSTRACT For more than half a century, non-nuclear weapon States have sought to outlaw nuclear threats. Across the decades, some of the nuclear armed States have issued assurances and/or signed agreements limiting their recourse to nuclear threats. Many of these assurances and agreements have, however, contained reservations that limit their scope. Further, there is debate as to whether some of the assurances given are legally binding. The piecemeal state of assurances and agreements on nuclear threats has allowed nuclear armed States to issue nuclear threats on a concerningly frequent basis. In this article, we consider the idea of developing a non-binding no first threat norm whereby nuclear armed States would commit to not being the first to make nuclear threats. We suggest that this norm should encompass both specific threats and general nuclear threats, and that it should be made to both non-nuclear weapon States and other nuclear armed States.

Australia’s bipolar approach to nuclear disarmament

ABSTRACT Australia is a strong supporter of global nuclear (and conventional) arms control and non-proliferation measures and has contributed significantly to their development; but it sees the world, strategically, through the eyes of a nuclear weapon state which, it believes, applies its nuclear deterrence doctrine also to the defence of Australia. It is thus effectively locked into what is essentially a nuclear weapon state’s view of the future that pays lip-service to nuclear disarmament as a distant ideal. Australian defence strategists routinely emphasise the importance of the US nuclear guarantee. Australia is though only likely to be attacked with nuclear weapons in the event of a nuclear war in which the United States is already engaged. The concept of extended nuclear deterrence thus assumes an essentially circular character by purporting to protect Australia from the nuclear threat that Australia’s alliance with its provider invites. Meanwhile, Australia is one of the few countries in its own region that have yet to sign the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW). This paper argues that—US hostility to the Treaty notwithstanding—Australian membership of the TPNW would be consistent with its generally positive disarmament record and compatible with its alliance commitments.

The Impact of Abrupt Sunlight Reduction Scenarios on Renewable Energy Production

To combat global warming, energy systems are transitioning to generation from renewable sources, such as wind and solar, which are sensitive to climate conditions. While their output is expected to be little affected by global warming, wind, and solar electricity generation could be affected by more drastic climatic changes, such as abrupt sunlight reduction scenarios (ASRSs) caused by nuclear war (“nuclear winter”) or supervolcanic eruptions (“volcanic winter”). This paper assesses the impacts of an ASRS on global energy supply and security in a 100% renewable energy scenario. National generation mixes are determined according to roadmaps for a global transition to renewable energy, with wind and solar contributing a combined 94% of the global energy supply. Wind and solar generation are determined for a baseline climate and an ASRS following a large-scale nuclear exchange. While effects vary by country, overall wind and solar generation are expected to reduce by 59% in the first year following an ASRS, requiring over a decade for full recovery. Ensuring sufficient energy for everyone’s critical needs, including water, food, and building heating/cooling, would require international trade, resilient food production, and/or resilient energy sources, such as wood, geothermal, nuclear power, tidal power, and hydropower.

Forecasting Costs of U.S. Ballistic Missile Defense Against a Major Nuclear Strike

ABSTRACT How many dollars would the United States need to spend on its ballistic missile defense (BMD) for each dollar the attacker spends to launch land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) armed with nuclear warheads? A hypothetical scenario is analyzed in which the United States has a functioning BMD technology and enough interceptors to distribute them in a two-layer defense with the overall system efficiency of 90%, as targeted by U.S. war planners. It is assumed that the attacker has enough missiles to deliver a range between 500 and 6000 warheads to the continental United States. Results show that in the most optimistic case for the defender, with a very high individual interceptor kill effectiveness of 90% and with perfect decoy discrimination capability, the United States would need to spend on average 8 times more than the attacker, for a total cost between $60 billion and $500 billion. With a more realistic individual interceptor effectiveness of 50% and if the system is unable to discriminate against decoys, the United States would need to spend on average 70 times more, for a total cost between $430 billion and $5.3 trillion.

The Impact of Practical Skills on Improving the Servicemen’s Preparedness to Act in Case of Radiation Contamination of the Area

The servicemen’s practical skills to respond to threats of chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear attacks, as well as the ability to make effective decisions are necessary for the implementation of effective targeted actions in the face of military threats. The aim of the article is to identify the impact of servicemen’s decision-making skills on their preparedness to act in case of radiation contamination of the area as well as an analysis of the opportunities of skills development in the educational simulation environment. The research employed such empirical methods as: educational experiment, testing, survey, quantitative assessment, and qualitative analysis. The study of causal relationships between servicemen’s decision-making skills under Contaminated Remains Mitigation System CRMS conditions and their preparedness to act under conditions of radiation contamination made it possible to identify a set of decision-making skills that affect high, medium and low servicemen’s preparedness to act under the chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) attacks. The authors developed and tested a virtual reality training simulator for training decision-making skills in a simulated environment of potential threats using the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) situation as an example. The results of the assessment of students’ knowledge after the educational experiment showed that simulation training in virtual reality was more effective than training using educational video content. The students of the experimental group (EG) showed a 13.2 points better result (90.6 points) in decision-making accuracy than the students of the control group (CG) (77.4 points).

Food system adaptation and maintaining trade could mitigate global famine in abrupt sunlight reduction scenarios

After a major nuclear war, volcanic eruption or asteroid or comet impact that causes an abrupt sunlight reduction scenario, agricultural yields would plummet. We analyzed a nuclear winter scenario involving the injection of 150 Tg of soot in the stratosphere using a linear optimization model with and without global food trade. We investigated the effects of loss of global food trade, some simple adaptations like rationing and storage of excess food for the coldest years, and rapid, large-scale deployment of food sources which are less dependent on present day climate (so called resilient foods) including cool tolerant crops, methane single cell protein, lignocellulosic sugar, greenhouse crops, and seaweed. In the worst case of no global food trade and no adaptations, the model predicts a global famine. However, scaling up resilient foods quickly could mitigate this for many countries. Maintaining global food trade would further alleviate pressure on local food systems, unlocking the potential to feed the entire global population. However, insufficient preparation, post-disaster conflict, or economic collapse would worsen outcomes and hinder adaptation.

The Perceptions of Nuclear War: The Imbalanced Co-Orientation Between Russian and American Youth

On February 24, 2022, Russia attacked its neighboring country of Ukraine. From the early days of what Russian President Putin called a special military operation, fears mounted that the conflict may grow into World War III, effectively ending the world in nuclear Armageddon. This study compares the current views of American and Russian youths on the issues of global nuclear war and nuclear weapons, as well as explores their inclinations toward supporting a first nuclear strike, nuclear retaliation, and their willingness to make personal sacrifices in the event of a nuclear conflict. Drawing upon the theoretical framework of co-orientation theory, the study methodically assesses the levels of agreement, congruency, and accuracy for the populations of both countries on the issues related to the nuclear conflict. The results show that American and Russian youths are currently in a state of imbalanced co-orientation—a newly defined state in the co-orientation theory—when it comes to their opinions on nuclear war and nuclear weapons. In conclusion, the study underscores the urgent need to address this lack of alignment between the two countries, given the potentially catastrophic consequences of nuclear warfare. Therefore, the study draws upon the co-orientation theory’s insights and formulates strategic public diplomacy recommendations, designed to cultivate mutual understanding, and promote constructive dialogue between the people of the United States of America and the Russian Federation.

Major Conflicts Between India and Pakistan: A Critical Analysis of Historical Tensions and Geopolitical Dynamics

Relations between India and Pakistan have remained parallel end and worst hostile as well ever since independence in 1947. In nearly 75 years, there were three wars between the two and a number of serious localized military clashes, including those on Ran of Ketch in 1965, followed by Kargil in 1999.The disputed territory of Kashmir played a significant role to maintain continuity, focusing the past conflicts of 1947 and 1965. As these two countries exploded nuclear weapons in 1998, their long-standing hostility has attracted and seriously concerned by the international community that their competition could rise to a nuclear war and cause disasters to both countries and the world as well. Whereas the Kashmir including some other outstanding issues, such as, water dispute, Sir Creek, Siachen and boundary disputes have also recorded the extreme level of conflicts between the two rivalries. Regionalism has played a significant role in European continent; however, in South Asia hegemonic attitude of India has marginalized the role of regional organizations such as SAARC. The world and south Asia witnessed the changes over two decades after the cold war, the liberalization of world trade, the growth of fundamentalism and revolutionary changes in the field of communications. Recognizing the intensity of the relations, India and Pakistan’s changing regional and international affairs which has drastically impaled to the leaders and governments of both the countries to initiate talks on their outstanding issues. The cross-border talks were an initiative step which attempted to provide a new forum to debate on these substantive issues resulted in the division of the two nations. Keeping in view the cited developments and their influences on the relations between India and Pakistan, some factors remained constant, the unresolved dispute over Kashmir, the growth of military spending, moves towards Nuclearization and perpetuation of an “adversarial psychosis” are still under question. This research has critically analyzed historic rivalry between India and Pakistan. It has also provided viable recommendations that how to contain major irritants between two States especially Kashmir issue and Nuclearization in region. In this research the purposive sampling method is used to justify the given hypothesis and objectives. The date is collected through the secondary data and results are deducted from the analytical approach.

Trading in Turbulent Times: Unravelling the Interplay between Trade Policy Uncertainty and Geopolitics in Russian Mineral Resource Supply

Trade policy plays a pivotal role in shaping import and export volumes within the global economy. However, the escalation of geopolitical tensions has posed significant challenges to the smooth flow of mineral resource trade. This study aims to analyse the consequences of global trade policy uncertainty (TPU) and various measures of geopolitical risk (GPR), including terror threats, war threats and nuclear threats (NCT), on Russian mineral exports (MEX). The analysis covers the period from January 2013 to December 2021. By employing sophisticated quantile regression methodologies, such as the cross-quantilogram (CQ) and cross-spectral quantile coherency (CQC) techniques, this study uncovers a compelling interaction between TPU and Russian MEX across different market conditions. Interestingly, TPU exerts a significantly positive impact on the export volumes of Russian mineral resources. In contrast, the presence of GPRs, particularly warfare and terrorism, proves to be detrimental to MEX during bullish market phases across various memory horizons. Surprisingly, NCT stimulates mineral trade during bearish market conditions, both in monthly and annual timeframes. These findings remain robust and consistent even when the CQC technique is employed. In light of these pressing geopolitical challenges, this study underscores the importance of developing sustainable mineral trade policies that foster enhanced global cohesion. It is crucial to address these challenges effectively to ensure the smooth and efficient flow of mineral resources in the international trade landscape. JEL Codes: C22, F13, F14, P28, Q21, Q27

The Russia-Ukraine war's "Armageddon" threat: A call to action for nuclear disarmament

The first atomic weapon was constructed in 1945 as a result of the discovery of nuclear fission. In the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, the US first exploded the weapon in 1945. Since then, more than 12,000 different kinds of nuclear weapons and advanced delivery systems have been obtained by nine other countries. Despite efforts to outlaw and eliminate nuclear weapons, Russia has made it known that it intends to use them in the conflict it is currently engaged in with Ukraine, which began in February 2022. This study looks at the Russian menace that has frightened the world and brought to mind the tragic US nuclear attacks and the ensuing massive destruction of the environment, material resources, and human lives. Fears of a nuclear war and destruction have increased due to the potential for nuclear reprisal from the West. According to this research, there is a serious risk to human survival from the presence of nuclear weapons. It also concludes that there is a genuine risk that nuclear weapons will be used in today's military conflicts. The paper suggests that, by the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, which went into effect on January 22, 2021, the current stockpile of nuclear weapons be immediately disarmed and destroyed.

The New York Times on the Day After: News Coverage of the Hiroshima Atomic Bomb

ABSTRACT This paper examines how the New York Times covered the atomic bomb that was dropped over Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. The analysis identifies the news frames of front-page stories in the Times during the first two days after the nuclear strike and compares them to the frames promoted by the U.S. government. This study adds to the literature by offering a micro view of the way the government propaganda campaign was embedded directly into the Times’ coverage of the atomic bomb. While previous research has provided a broad assessment of how the Times and the news media in general were manipulated, this study identifies the specific news frames as they appeared in government documents and news reports.

‘Crazy Chinese’ and the 2017 nuclear crisis: A Peruvian newspaper representation of Kim Jong-Un

This study analyzes the narrative characteristics of graphic and written language regarding Kim Jong-Un in the peruvian newspaper ‘El Trome’. This occurred in May of 2017, when mainstream press in Peru closely followed national corruption scandals, whilst ‘El Trome’ focused on a different news story: the nuclear crisis between the United States and North Korea, popularizing the term “Crazy Chinese” in order to refer to the controversial Asian leader. Grounded Theory precepts were employed, which included content analysis of the newspaper covers as well as in depth interviews of the newspapers with both Trome’s General Editor and Design Editor. The newspaper maximized the fear associated with an impending nuclear war, constructing a journalistic message from a sequence of events with two main protagonists: Donald Trump and Kim Jong-Un, unpredictable leaders with access to nuclear weapons. The strategy appealed to black humor and entertainment in order to position an agenda independent from mainstream press, which focused on internal politics at the time.

Evaluating Saudi Arabian nurses' willingness to respond to nuclear and radiological disasters.

We evaluated Saudi Arabian nurses' willingness to engage in nuclear and radiological disaster response. In the face of rising nuclear and radiological threats, it is essential that nurses are fully prepared to handle the health consequences of such emergencies. As frontline responders, nurses play a critical role in managing high-stakes situations, making their readiness a key factor in ensuring public safety during these crises. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 612 registered nurses in Saudi Arabia. The survey used a structured questionnaire based on the theory of planned behavior, identifying behavioral intentions as the primary outcome and attitudes toward these behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control as influencing factors. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Most respondents lacked specialized training and reported strong behavioral intentions. Attitude and perceived behavioral control were key drivers of these behavioral intentions, with less impact from subjective norms. Behavioral intentions were also shaped by education, the perceived likelihood of nuclear and radiological emergencies in their region, peer influence, perceived self-efficacy, and family concerns. Younger and married nurses showed significantly stronger behavioral intentions. Although most nurses lacked specialized training, their strong engagement intentions and positive responses to active learning and training indicate a desire to close this gap through further education. However, inadequate institutional support, trouble communicating with family, and concerns about personal radiation exposure emerged as potential barriers. Targeted educational initiatives and support systems are needed to enhance nurses' confidence, competence, and willingness to engage in radiological and nuclear emergency scenarios. Policymakers should prioritize the development of specialized training programs and support mechanisms for nurses, ensuring they are adequately prepared to respond effectively to increasing radiological and nuclear threats.

Notes from the Editors, September 2024

This month's "Notes form the Editors" recounts the history of U.S. preparations for "prolonged and limited" nuclear war and Washington's repeated refusal to abide by international agreements regarding nuclear weaponry. With the recent announcement that the United States will be stationing nuclear-capable Tomahawk missiles on German soil—within minutes' striking distance of Moscow—this history is now, troublingly, more relevant than ever.

Clinical and forensic aspects of potassium iodide: Suddenly in high demand across Europe due to fears of radiation poisoning from a nuclear attack in Ukraine.

Potassium iodide has demonstrated several therapeutic applications over time, being the choice for shielding the thyroid during radiation emergencies involving radioiodine release. Amidst the ongoing military conflict between Ukraine and Russia and the growing concern regarding the potential deployment of nuclear weapons, there has been a surge in the demand for potassium iodide across Europe. This work aimed to comprehensively review the current knowledge regarding the pharmacology, physiology, adverse effects, the protective role in reducing the risk of thyroid cancer and recommendations for potassium iodide use during radiation emergencies. Evidence on adverse effects is scarce, as potassium iodide is generally well-tolerated. Guidelines for thyroid blocking with potassium iodide during radiation emergencies suggest that, among populations vulnerable to radioiodine exposure, the benefits of potassium iodide outweigh the risks of adverse effects. Controversial topics surrounding the utilization of potassium iodide in radiation emergencies include the prophylaxis in iodine-deficient regions and following the detonation of dirty bombs, whether granule formulations versus tablets should be used and mental health concerns. Although the rise in demand seems to be a justified security measure, it is essential to recognize that potassium iodide protects the thyroid from radioiodine and does not impact the body's absorption of other radioactive materials or defend against external radiation exposure.

Reinterpretation of Mythological Characters in Youth Culture

The article deals with the specifics of modern reinterpretation of mythological characters, as well as its representation in youth culture. Mythological subjects and their heroes remain attractive for the creative sphere for many centuries. For young people, immersion in mythology allows them to develop constructive solutions to many issues, to recreate a positive picture of the world through the eternal idea of the triumph of good and justice reflected in ancient texts. It is the reinterpretation approach to the reading of world-famous works that allows us to use a wide range of myth. For example, the interest in the myths of European society in the second half of the 20th century is due to the fact that this time is associated with the threat of the outbreak of nuclear war and, as a consequence, with constant uncertainty and the simultaneous desire of each person for a life-affirming and immutable basis, such as the classical one. The evolution of representations of myth in culture has led to the emergence of reinterpretations of the original source, making some of them popular, including with youth audiences.In the 21st century, other mythological images have emerged in accordance with the challenges of the time, which we consider as cultural products of a new level, characterized not only by an appeal to the classical text, but also by a commercial component. The article provides several examples of how the new artistic presentation of mythological characters is reflected in modern mass youth culture — in literature, video games and cinema. The modern interpretation of the tales of ancient civilizations is based on the cultural preferences of mass viewers: the images of myths can be canonical or modernized, but in any case universal. The process of giving new meaning to myths familiar from the school days from an unexpected (nonclassical) side has been repeatedly discussed in the scientific cultural field.The relevance of reinterpretation of mythological characters in youth culture is due to the desire of the new generation not only to rethink the cultural heritage, but also to get in touch with it.

Anti-Ceramide ScFv Prophylaxis for First Responders to a Limited Nuclear Attack.

After 9/11, multiple government agencies instituted programs aimed at developing medical radiation countermeasures (MRCs) for two syndromes lethal within weeks of a limited nuclear attack; the hematopoietic-acute radiation syndrome (H-ARS) and the higher-dose gastrointestinal-acute radiation syndrome (GI-ARS). While re-purposing drugs that enhance marrow repopulation treats H-ARS, no mitigator protects GI tract. We recently reported anti-ceramide 6B5 single-chain variable fragment (scFv) pre-treatment abrogates ongoing small intestinal endothelial apoptosis to rescue Lgr5+ stem cells, preventing GI-ARS lethality in C57B/L6J mice. Here, with US Department of Defense support, we provide evidence that humanized anti-ceramide scFv (CX-01) is a promising prophylactic MRC for first responders, who risk exposure upon entering a radiation-contaminated site. CX-01, when delivered up to 90 min before irradiation, is highly-effective in preventing small intestinal endothelial apoptosis in mice and lethality in both sexes. Unexpectedly, females require an ~2-fold higher CX-01 dose than males for full protection. CX-01 is effective subcutaneously and intramuscularly, a property critical for battlefield use. Increasing the maximally-effective dose 5-fold does not extend duration of bioeffectiveness. While CX-01 prevents GI-ARS lethality, structural modification to extend half-life may be necessary to optimize first responder prophylaxis.

Advancing Military Medical Planning in Large Scale Combat Operations: Insights From Computer Simulation and Experimentation in NATO's Vigorous Warrior Exercise 2024.

The ongoing conflict in Ukraine from Russian invasion presents a critical challenge to medical planning in the context of multi-domain battle against a peer adversary deploying conventional weapon systems. The potential escalation of preventable morbidity and mortality, reaching a scale unprecedented since World War II, underscores the paramount importance of effective phases of care from Point of Injury (PoI)/Point of Wounding (PoW) or Point of Exposure (PoE) to Role 1 (R1) and Role 2 (R2) echelons of care.The NATO Vigorous Warrior (VW) Live Exercise (LIVEX) serves as a strategic platform for NATO and its partners, providing an opportunity to challenge operational concepts, experiment, innovate life-saving systems, and foster best practices across the Alliance. This study delineates the strategic application of the VW LIVEX platform for the adaptation of the computational simulation software Simulation for the Assessment and Optimization of Medical Disaster Management (SIMEDIS) within the context of Large-Scale Combat Operations (LSCO). The SIMEDIS computer simulator plays a pivotal role by furnishing real-time insights into the evolving injury patterns of patients, employing an all-hazards approach. This simulator facilitates the examination of temporal shifts in medical timelines and the ramifications of resource scarcity against both morbidity and mortality outcomes. The VW LIVEX provides a unique opportunity for systematic validation to evaluate the results of the computer simulator in a realistic setting and identify gaps for future concepts of operations. We report the process and methodologies to be evaluated at the VW LIVEX in far forward and retrospective medical support operations. Using the SIMEDIS simulator, we can define battlefield scenarios for varied situations including artillery, drone strikes, and Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and explosive (CBRNe) attacks. Casualty health progressions versus time are dependent on each threat. Mortality is computed based on the concepts found in Tactical Combat Casualty Care (TCCC) of "self-aid"/"buddy-aid" factoring in the application or absence of definitive traumatic hemorrhage control and on the distribution policy of victims to medical treatment facilities through appropriate Command and Control (C2) ("Scoop and Run" versus "Stay and Play"). The number of medical supplies available along with the number of transport resources and personnel are set and are scalable, with their effect on both morbidity and mortality quantified.Concept of Medical Operations can be optimized and interoperability enhanced when shared data are provided to C2 for prospective medical planning with retrospective data. The SIMEDIS simulator determines best practices of medical management for a myriad of injury types and tactical/operational situations relevant to policy making and battlefield medical planning for LSCO. The VW LIVEX provides a Concept Development and Experimentation platform for SIMEDIS refinement and conclusive insights into medical planning to reduce preventable morbidity and mortality. Recommending further iterations of similar methodologies at other NATO LIVEXs for validation is crucial, as is information sharing across the Alliance and partners to ensure best practice standards are met.

Rapacki Plan: Policy of Small States in Central and Eastern Europe in Second Half of 1950s

This article addresses the role of small states in addressing security issues in Central Europe. Through an examination of the development of the Rapacki Plan, the authors trace the distinctive features of the national interests of small states in both Western and Eastern Europe. These interests were oriented towards the advancement of European integration, the resolution of the German question, and the mitigation of political and economic dependence on the USSR. Special attention is given to the Federal Republic of Germany’s (FRG) membership in NATO and the roles played by the United States, the United Kingdom, and other alliance members in attempts to address European security issues at the level of small states. Although the Rapacki Plan was never fully realized, its objectives were partially achieved. First, the arming of the FRG with American nuclear weapons and the deployment of American intermediate-range missiles on its territory were prevented; second, economic cooperation expanded, initiating the erosion of the “Iron Curtain”; third, a “universal idea of nuclear-free zones” emerged; and fourth, concrete steps were taken to prevent nuclear war.

Rapamycin Reduces Carcinogenesis and Enhances Survival in Mice when Administered after Nonlethal Total-Body Irradiation.

The rationale of this study stems from the concern of a radiation-induced accident or terrorist-mediated nuclear attack resulting in large populations of people exposed to nonlethal radiation doses or after a course of definitive radiation therapy which could substantially increase the risk for cancer induction after exposure. Currently, there are no safe and effective interventions to reduce this increased cancer risk to humans. We have tested the hypothesis that the mTOR inhibitor, rapamycin, administered in the diet of mice would reduce or delay radiation-induced cancer when given after radiation exposure. A total-body irradiation (TBI) of 3 Gy was administered to female C3H/Hen mice. Immediately after TBI, along with untreated control groups, animals were placed on chow containing different concentrations of encapsulated rapamycin (14, 40, 140 mg/kg chow). Animals remained on the respective control or rapamycin diets and were followed for their entire lifespan (total of 795 mice). The endpoint for the study was tumor formation (not to exceed 1 cm) or until the animal reached a humane endpoint at which time the animal was euthanized and evaluated for the presence of tumors (pathology evaluated on all animals). Kaplan-Meier survival curves revealed that all three concentrations of rapamycin afforded a significant survival advantage by delaying the time at which tumors appeared and reduction of the incidence of certain tumor types such as hepatocellular carcinomas. The survival advantage was dependent on the rapamycin concentration used. Further, there was a survival advantage when delaying the rapamycin chow by 1 month after TBI. Rapamycin is FDA-approved for human use and could be considered for use in individuals exposed to nonlethal TBI from a nuclear accident or attack or after significant therapeutic doses for cancer treatment.