Theosophical Society Research Articles

The Theosophical Society as a Pioneering Spiritual Enterprise

The Theosophical Society became one of the first both open and global occult organizations. Supported only by small membership fees and donations, it nevertheless became a success, establishing headquarters in India and local lodges around the world. After the first schism in the 1890s, the separate organizations equally thrived for a while. Due to the initial success, the Theosophical Society influenced the wider culture, setting an early standard for “occulture,” the pop-cultural devotion to the occult, which is now a billion-dollar industry. Later, organizations would serve as links to an even wider and more innovative spread of theosophical ideas, such as the idea of the mahatmas. This wider popularization would eventually lead to numerous products related to the mahatmas and to an emergence of new businesses demonstrating how already established market structures have been instrumental for the propagation of Theosophical ideas beyond the Theosophical Society.

Beyond the Theosophical Paradigm: Ilme kṣnum and the Entangled History of Modern Parsis

Abstract In the early twentieth century, an esoteric interpretation of Zoroastrianism known as Ilme kṣnum became popular among the Parsis of India. Although research on the subject is scant, most scholars suggest that Ilme kṣnum draws largely upon the ideas promoted by the Theosophical Society in India. By examining primary sources in Gujarati, the present article illustrates the interpretation of the Zoroastrian cosmology proposed by Ilme kṣnum. Through a comparative analysis of its main concepts and terms, Ilme kṣnum is historicized in the context of the relations of the Parsi community with the Persianate and Western worlds. By framing Ilme kṣnum as a reconciliation between Persianate and Western forms of knowledge, the present article looks at historical entanglements as resources for the Parsi quest for religious authenticity, placing Zoroastrianism in global religious history.

Kalevala and Finland's Atlantean Past

Nationalistic interpretations of history were prevalent in Finland until the Second World War. A unifying past for Finns was sought in antiquity, often influenced by interpretations of the Kalevala, regarded as the Finnish national epic. The Kalevala also inspired writers in the Theosophical Society, who promoted various alternative views of humanity’s past. In this article, I analyse the late 1930s writings of Wilho “Willie” Angervo (1875–1938), a medical colonel and author who had a central role in the Finnish Order of the Star in the East and the Theosophical Society in his time. Inspired by the Kalevala, Angervo traced the origins of the Finns to the lost continent of Atlantis and aimed to revitalize the pre-Christian “faith of the forefathers”. Dialogical narrative analysis is employed to explore how Angervo portrayed the Finns’ past, combining Theosophical and nationalistic ideas to construct an ideal Finnishness. I argue that Angervo utilized the Theosophical timeline and concepts to construct a spiritually oriented national narrative for the Finns that would surpass any polit-ical quarrels and challenge both the Church and more military-oriented nationalism.

Глобальная история религии: назад в будущее?

The article reconstructs the concept of J. Strube, a leading representative of the younger generation of esotericism researchers. In the first part of the article, his critical program is analyzed, it is established that he systematically deconstructed the existing ideas about Western esotericism with the help of a large source base. Starting with the demythologization of the story of the occult energy of Vril, he turned to the origins of the French esoteric community, finding them in the first generation of socialists. The second part examines the positive research program of Strube: having criticized global ideological attitudes (poststructuralism, postcolonialism, cultural relativism), he proceeded to substantiate a new religious studies program – global religious studies. To reveal its heuristic potential, Strube conducted a systematic reconstruction of the Western reception of Tantrism, including the identification of the esoteric background of Indian culture of the XIX century, the specifics of the activities of the theosophical society in India and the "Arthur Avalon project", which combined the efforts of the Shivachandra tantric school. Strube's research shows that the colonial process of appropriation of Indian doctrines by the West did not exist, in fact, esoteric discourse was a global form of constructing ideologies and identities around the world. Indians at the beginning of the XIX century used it to modernize the language of ancient religious doctrines, and later Bengalis with its help made a successful attempt to legitimize Tantra. In conclusion it is shown that the program of global religious studies is a revival of religious comparativism, but on a solid foundation based on new empirical material.

Meditation matters: The politics and networks of yoga and spiritual reform between Indonesia, India and the West, 1900s–1970s

ABSTRACTStarting from sites of yogic and Buddhist learning connecting Indonesia and India this article explores the politics, practices, transformation, dissemination and uses of knowledge on yoga and meditation in late colonial and postcolonial Indonesia, and their relation to moral geographies of Greater India. It follows, across (violent) regime changes, the trajectories of learning of a number of self-made experts and entrepreneurs in this field who were also involved in the postcolonial Buddhist reform movement in Indonesia: the Chinese Indonesians Souw Tjiang Poh (b.1929), better known, also as yoga guru, under his Buddhist name Yogamurti; and his meditation teacher, Tee Boan An (1923–2002), who, as Ashin Jinarakkhita, is more famous as motor behind the Buddhist reform movement in Indonesia from the 1950s onwards. Yogamurti's and Tee Boan An's histories of ‘yogic’ transformation reach back to ‘alternative’ spiritual reform trajectories of the Theosophical Society of late colonial times, and continue, across decolonization and the violent regime change of 1965, to those of the hippie trail of the 1970s. These spiritual and ‘Indic’ religious revivalist entrepreneurs provide alternative perspectives to the grand narratives of political history, yoga, ‘Indian religion’ or ‘Greater India’. Across regime changes, their paths crossed and they exchanged knowledge, thereby changing and reshaping social hierarchies as they moved within an ‘alternative present’ in which spirituality seemed a way to move forward to ‘alternative futures’.

Jiddu Krishnamurti and the Problem of Conscience

Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986) remains an enigma for philosophers, historians and lay audiences. Being chosen to be made “World Teacher” by the Theosophical Society (Adyar), Krishnamurti renounced his demi-godhood, in 1929, and went on to become a spiritual teacher. Krishnamurti’s vexed life has increasingly come under scrutiny, in the last three decades, owing to his perceived acts of immoral behavior. This correlates to the growing culture of public denunciations of acts of moral transgressions that we have witnessed particularly over the last decade. Considering the importance of the themes of conscience and morality within Krishnamurti’s “spiritual anarchy,” this paper tries to locate the absent centre of his seemingly decentered philosophy. It draws a comparative trajectory of the centrality of these themes in the lives and works of his philosophical parents, Helena P. Blavatsky and Annie Besant. The paper contends that Krishnamurti’s conception of morality and its role in human suffering needs to be examined, that his philosophy atavistically recapitulates the struggles of Blavatsky and Besant and, ultimately, that his perceived forays into unconscientious realms do not disqualify but reaffirm his crusade against the “still small voice of conscience.”

Review: Occult Roots of Religious Studies: On the Influence of Non-Hegemonic Currents on Academia around 1900, edited by Yves Mühlematter and Helmut Zander

Review: <i>Occult Roots of Religious Studies: On the Influence of Non-Hegemonic Currents on Academia around 1900</i>, edited by Yves Mühlematter and Helmut Zander

Global Tantra: Religion, Science, and Nationalism in Colonial Modernity by Julian Strube

Reviewed by: Global Tantra: Religion, Science, and Nationalism in Colonial Modernity by Julian Strube Nicholas Collins julian strube. Global Tantra: Religion, Science, and Nationalism in Colonial Modernity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2022. Pp. 360. This valuable contribution to the history of Indian Tantra aims to uncover a heretofore neglected period in its development from ancient ritual practices and texts to its contemporary globalized receptions and transformations, that of the nineteenth century. It is during this period wherein the conditions of modernity, confronting both Indian and Western intellectual culture, called forth new reforms and revivals, new syntheses of multiple intellectual and alternative religious currents, and new self-definitions of tradition. By focusing on the Indian situation with regard to Tantra, Strube aims to correct the misconception that modern Tantra owes most of its form to an assimilation of Western esoteric currents, a view he describes as "the west then the rest." Even the term "Western esotericism," Strube contends, was created to distinguish it from "Eastern esotericism" (used in Orientalist scholarship), with both being shaped by modernity, itself having a global, and not merely Western, history. The debates surrounding Tantra in this period were not unidirectionally shaped, but involved a dialogic exchange with Indian and Asian actors, particularly within networks of Bengali Tantrics. Chief among these figures was the tantric guru Shivachandra Vidyarnava, whose students included a number of Indians, as well as the English judge Sir John Woodroffe. Together these students produced the most influential presentations of Tantra in the modern period under the alias "Arthur Avalon," nominally represented by Woodroffe as the "face" of the publications. The Theosophical Society looms large in the dialogue between Westerners and the Bengali Tantrics. Although they reproduced some aspects of colonialism, the Theosophists sided with their Indian interlocutors in their positive estimation of Indian religious traditions, including Tantra. In this they diverged from some earlier orientalist scholars like Muller and Monier Williams, as well as Christian missionaries, who held rather negative views of Tantra, a prejudice that is evident also in some syncretic Hindu reform movements like Roy's Brahmo Samaj. Indian intellectuals defended Tantra in the pages of Theosophical journals and made direct parallels to Western [End Page 456] esoteric movements. Somewhat like Shaiva Siddhanta and Srividya traditions in South India, Bengal had long been home to a vibrant and normative Tantric milieu including Śaiva, Śākta, and Baul poet traditions, and a robust intellectual tradition centered in Navadvip, considered "the Oxford of Bengal." Because they had already been confronted with the multiplicity of traditions in the region (Vaishnava, bhakti, Islamic, Shaiva, Shakta, etc.), universalistic religious conceptions had developed prior to Western influence, which were adapted to the new intercultural situation in modernity. Even Theosophy was perceived as part of the Indian sanātana (eternal) dharma, an estimation shared by Theosophists in terms of what they saw as a common "Aryan" past and an esoteric religious core of universal unity. Such universalist tendencies were paralleled by Unitarians and Spiritualists, as well as by the Indian Brahmo Samaj, many of whose members were leaders in the Bengal Theosophical Society. Theosophical thought absorbed and was altered by contributions from Indian sources, while Indians made correlations between their own systems and Western movements like Spiritualism, which had been present in India since the 1860s. The Brahmos in particular absorbed Western social reformist ideas and applied them to their own reformations of Hinduism, deemphasizing certain occult and ritual elements in an effort to restore a "pure" Hindu dharma rooted in the Vedas and Upanishads, while also arguing against caste distinctions and championing female education. In contrast, the Bengali revivalists such as Shivachandra and his students pursued similar aims, but did so by appealing to the ancient Śāstras and to Tantric, as well as Vedic tradition, rather than modern Western social reformist ideas. To the extent that this revivalism was also in dialogue with Western concepts and authors, there was always an implied element of reform as well. Shivachandra himself, however, had little engagement with Western sources, spoke no English, and was highly critical of the Western-influenced Brahmo and Arya Samaj. Born in 1860 into an eleventh-generation Tantric family in Kumarkhali, educated at Navadvip, he was a...

William Lethaby, Symbolism and the Occult by Amandeep Kaur Mann

Reviewed by: William Lethaby, Symbolism and the Occult by Amandeep Kaur Mann Zachary R. Schwarze amandeep kaur mann. William Lethaby, Symbolism and the Occult. London and New York: Routledge, 2022. Pp. 264. In William Lethaby, Symbolism and the Occult, Amandeep Kaur Mann identifies and analyzes occult influences upon the work of British architect William Lethaby (1857–1931). More precisely, Mann is interested in visual symbols of occult origin which populate Lethaby's oeuvre and, according to the architect, communicate profound truths about the cosmos. Among her goals is to show that these influences are not irrational or otherwise foolish quirks of the architect's mind, but rather constitute proof that Lethaby, along with a number of other architects and artists from fin de siècle Europe, worked within a sphere of profound occult influence. That is to say, occult symbols do not decorate Lethaby's drawings and realized structures, but instead inform at the most fundamental level what an architectural space is meant to do, i.e., affect spiritual transformation within a person inhabiting [End Page 472] that space. In crafting her methodological approach, Mann mirrors Lethaby's semiotic/allegorical mode of selecting symbols: if Lethaby selected symbols based on intrinsic, occult meanings or properties, then Mann's task is to identify those meanings and properties to understand the functions of individual compositions and structures. The book is divided into three parts. The first, titled "Lethaby, Occultism and Symbolism," situates Lethaby within the occultist milieu of fin de siècle Europe, particularly that of Victorian Britain. Here, Mann identifies the Theosophical Society, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and Éliphas Lévi as ideological influences. Lévi appears to be particularly significant, as the author inserts a scanned page of one of Lethaby's notebooks where he draws one of Lévi's magic squares and writes iterations of the word "abracadabra" (20). This section also lays out theoretical frameworks used by the author to interpret Lethaby's use of symbols. These include: semiotic theory, with particular attention to Carl Jung and Charles Sanders Pierce; a theory of magical symbols concerned not only with semiotic meaning, but also with tangible outcomes associated with the reproduction of certain symbols; and finally Victorian psychological associationism, as represented by John Ruskin and Wilhelm Worringer, which is concerned with a universal set of symbols and colors that evoke particular responses and may be learned and manipulated (26–33). The second and longest part of the book, titled "Elements of the Occult in Lethaby's Work," deals with identifying particular symbols which appear in Lethaby's oeuvre and tracing their meanings back to sources either encountered by or available to the architect. Mann separates symbols into two categories, alchemical and occult magical. Lethaby's use of alchemical symbols is predicated on the principle that people should not be passive observers of architectural space, but rather participate in it. His alchemical preoccupation is correspondingly concerned with journey and transformation. As an example, the author adduces references to the journey and transformation of the character Poliphilo in the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili—which Lethaby read (45)—as a direct inspiration for the frontispiece he designed for the 1889 Architectural Association Sketchbook (59). The other category of symbols, the occult magical, communicates more general "esoteric" meanings (91). The author draws examples of symbols of this category from Lethaby's drawing A Beryl Shrine (1888). Here, Mann interprets the serpent, a principal symbol in the composition, to represent "man's lower, material nature," (101) as evidenced by direct influence from Dante Gabriel Rosetti's poem Rose Mary (1871–1881). The final part of the book, titled "The Occult and Lethaby's Legacy," uses William Lethaby's work to argue for occult ideas, themselves dating back to [End Page 473] at least Europe's medieval period, as fundamental to the history of modern architecture. Here, the author capitalizes on the breadth of examples to show that Lethaby, like other artists and architects of his time, did not develop occultist ideologies in a vacuum, but rather in direct connection to his sociocultural surround. Mann shows how Lethaby, as a predecessor to architects, artists, and designers of the mid-twentieth century, exerted influence...

Woman Suffrage in Bengal (1921–1925): The ‘Great Game’ Between the Imperialists and the Theosophists

In 1921, the Bengal Legislative Council defeated the Woman Suffrage Bill. It created quite a stir because Bengal showed strong opposition to the Bill, in spite of its reputation for being receptive to progressive thought. The bafflement was complete when the same Bill was passed in the Bengal Legislative Council in 1925. Longstanding social taboos and attitudes do not change within 4 years. Therefore, the explanation for the curious voting pattern has to be sought in Bengal politics. Very little research has hitherto been devoted to this episode of Indian history. Feminist historians of 1970s were satisfied when the Indian male’s purported social orthodoxy were repeatedly cited as a blanket explanation for all regressive obstructions. In 1978, Brian Harrison suggested that British Imperial resistance to woman suffrage was essentially a crusade against communism. Although Harrison’s work gave rise to a vigorous reinvestigation of anti-suffragist movement in England, no similar enquiry about anti-suffragist movement in India was carried out. The article investigates why and how the British Raj opposed woman suffrage in India, when principal supporters of woman suffrage was the Theosophical Society, considered to be a shady Russian-funded mischief-making organisation by British Intelligence.

Seen through Deep Time: Occult Clairvoyance and Palaeoscientific Imagination

Abstract Dating from the middle of the nineteenth century, prominent paranormal researchers in Britain and the United States began to claim that they could see through time. Using clairvoyant powers, they proposed to solve the mysteries of geology and palaeontology, not least by filling in the missing links in the evolution of life. This article explores the literary outputs of these figures, with an especial focus on the Anglo-American ‘psychometers’ William and Elizabeth Denton and selected members of the Theosophical Society, including Helena Petrovna Blavatsky. I argue that clairvoyants’ narratives of exploration in the prehistoric past were heavily indebted not just to the technical concepts of mainstream palaeoscience, but also to the figurative language and visual iconography used by palaeoscientists and science writers, including their metaphors of necromancy and visual spectacle. The vivid language of Victorian palaeoscience, crafted to see the unseeable events of prehistory, has been studied in depth by students of literature and science; recently, literary scholars have paid increasing attention to the imaginative prose of occult science writing. I bring these bodies of scholarship together, contesting that Romantic conceptions of science motivated paranormal researchers to literalize the figurative language of time-travel deployed by more orthodox palaeoscientists. Examining the work of the Dentons, Blavatsky, and others, I show that that the vivid literature of palaeoscience inspired a realm where practitioners on the fringes of elite science could make bold if precarious claims, instilling individual agency into the abysm of deep time.

ПЕРЕДУМОВИ СТВОРЕННЯ КОНЦЕПЦІЇ КОСМІЧНОГО ВИХОВАННЯ В ПЕДАГОГІЧНІЙ СИСТЕМІ М. МОНТЕССОРІ

The article considers the prerequisites for the creation of the concept of «space education» in the pedagogical system of M. Montessori. The necessity of its introduction into the work practice of preschool institutions of Ukraine is argued. The 21st century education paradigm is aimed at finding such an education system that would teach a person to live and act in accordance with the universal laws of Nature and the Cosmos. The versions of the researchers of the life and scientific work of the Italian teacher are presented regarding the time frame of the appearance of the term «space education», the formation and generalization of the material, which took shape in a separate educational course. The meaning of the concept of «space education» is revealed. It was found out that the work on the formation of the theory took place in stages and lasted for a long time. The influence of the Indian period of M. Montessori's life on the formation of her philosophical and pedagogical views in the last years of her life was studied. The closeness of the ideas and worldview of M. Montessori with the representatives of the Indian intelligentsia of those times – J. Arundale, A. Besant, M. Gandhi, J. Nehru, R. Tagore is traced. They admired her method, were like-minded and belonged to the Theosophical Society, which, as it turned out, actively helped M. Montessori during his stay in India. Attention is focused on a detailed analysis of the philosophical and pedagogical views of A. Besant, M. Gandhi, and R. Tagore. Three conditions are named that contributed to the creation of the concept of «space education» during his stay in India. The indisputable role of Mario Montessori's son and Lena Wickramaratne's student in creating a class of children of various ages (6-12 years old), selection and production of didactic materials, implementation of Maria Montessori's theory of «space education» in practice is emphasized. The publication outlines a topic that needs further research. Key words: M. Montessori's method, humanistic pedagogy, theosophy, cosmic education, preschool age, Indian period.

Rudolf Steiner: From Theosophy to Anthroposophy (1902-1913)

The Theosophical Society, founded in New York in 1875, was, at the turn of the Twentieth Century, a global phenomenon with 100,000 members. New Age philosopher Dr Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925) was appointed as the first Secretary General of the German Section of the Theosophical Society on 19 October 1902. The Theosophical Society offered Rudolf Steiner a platform, a ready-made audience, infrastructure, and the insider experience of the world’s leading New Age spiritual society. The success of the Theosophical Society demonstrated that there was a public appetite to hear about reincarnation, karma, maya, kamaloca, and other Eastern and alternative spiritual ideas. The Theosophical Society provided Rudolf Steiner a capable, multilingual, and determined personal assistant, Marie von Sivers (1867-1948). For Rudolf Steiner the Theosophical Society offered the perfect training ground for what would be, a decade later, his life’s work, the Anthroposophical Society. Rudolf Steiner grew the membership of the German Section of the Theosophical Society from 377 in 1905 to 3,702 in 1913. He earned cash from ticketing of his lectures and his Mystery plays, and from book sales of his personal publishing house, ‘Philosophisch-Theosophischer Verlag’. Another enterprise, the ‘Johannes-Bau-Verein’ (Johannes Building Association) was founded in 1911, independent of the Theosophical Society, to build a theatre in Munich to present Rudolf Steiner's plays. The building application was rejected by the Munich municipal authorities in 1912. The resistance to a build in Munich, provided impetus for the move to build in Dornach, Switzerland. The Anthroposophical Society was founded 28 December 1912 in Cologne, Germany. Most of the members of the German Section of the Theosophical Society members followed Rudolf Steiner into the Anthroposophical Society. The Theosophical Society expelled Rudolf Steiner from the Theosophical Society on 7 March 1913. The foundation stone for the Goetheanum (then still called the ‘Johannesbau’) was laid 20 September 1913. The Theosophical Society had served as the ideal prototype and springboard for founding and growing the Anthroposophical Society.

Occult Roots of Religious Studies. On the Influence of Non-Hegemonic Currents on Academia around 1900 ed. by Yves Mühlematter and Helmut Zander

Reviewed by: Occult Roots of Religious Studies. On the Influence of Non-Hegemonic Currents on Academia around 1900 ed. by Yves Mühlematter and Helmut Zander Stanislav Panin yves mühlematter and helmut zander, eds. Occult Roots of Religious Studies. On the Influence of Non-Hegemonic Currents on Academia around 1900. Oldenbourg: De Gruyter, 2021. Pp. xii + 283. The volume consists of nine chapters exploring the history of interactions between esotericism and academia. In the introduction the editors outline two main ideas of the volume, first, "that religious studies have little-known and sometimes repressed origins which lie in the field of esotericism" and, second, "that esotericism is an intrinsic part of hegemonic cultures and not a separate, small, 'secret,' or 'occult' field of minority groups" (1). The volume, therefore, argues for a shift from understanding esotericism as a marginal form of spirituality to understanding of it as a central (though often invisible or underappreciated) part of European history. The chapter by Helmut Zander introduces readers to major theories of esotericism. The author contrasts "content-related" and "discourse-related" approaches. While recognizing that both contribute to our understanding of esotericism, Zander also points out their limitations. He maintains that content-related definitions are often too narrow and tied to arbitrary cultural contexts while discourse-related definitions tend to be too open-ended, allow "extremely different and broad definitions," and therefore limit a meaningful communication between scholars (26–27). A possible solution, according to Zander, requires a globally oriented yet historically aware approach. The word [End Page 353] "esotericism" refers to different things in different contexts and, consequently, scholars will always operate with a variety of definitions that only partially overlap (37). At the same time, the existence of these overlaps constitutes a family resemblance between definitions of esotericism that allows thinking about it as the same phenomenon while providing flexibility for empirical research. Marco Frenschkowski's chapter provides an in-depth analysis of interactions between esotericism and early religious studies in Britain, situating both within the cultural context of the Victorian era. Frenschkowski highlights the role of learned societies and argues that, due to the scarcity of relevant university positions, the early research in the field was primarily driven by learned societies rather than universities. These societies were not strictly academic and consisted of enthusiasts motivated by personal interests. In this context, groups clearly related to the history of esotericism, such as the Theosophical Society and the Society for Psychical Research, competed for recognition and status with organizations like the Folklore Society. There also was a fair share of interaction between them. For instance, Andrew Lang served as a president of both the Folklore Society and the Society of Psychical Research, and championed an idea that psychical research could be used in the analysis of folklore (54–56). As Frenschkowski concludes, in Victorian Britain esotericism became a catalyst for the comparative study of religion and ignited interest to folklore, ancient and non-Western religions. As such, it played a pivotal albeit often overlooked role in emergence of religious studies. Stepping a few decades back, Daniel Cyranka discusses the figure of Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck, a German biologist who served as the president of the Academy of the Natural Sciences Leopoldina between 1818 and 1858 and was interested in animal magnetism and spiritualism. Using Nees von Esenbeck's career as an example, Cyranka shows how attitudes about esotericism shifted during the first half of the nineteenth century. While early in his career Nees' interest in animal magnetism was not considered an issue, by the 1850s it became problematic and had to be concealed (85–86). Cyranka further argues that in the second half of the nineteenth century the comparative study of religion took over the vacuum created by expulsion of these topics from the academia. Despite its connection to esotericism, the necessity to secure academic status led scholars to oppose themselves to religion as "the Other" while controversial subjects such as magic or communication with spirits were attributed to non-Western or non-Modern cultures. [End Page 354] Moving to more specific research fields, Boaz Huss in his chapter deals with the influence of esotericism on the academic study...

Problém nacionalismu a institucionalizace polského teozofického hnutí v Československu po roce 1918

This study deals with the intermingling of nationalism with spiritual esoteric trends, especially in the environment of the workers of the Ostrava industrial agglomeration, where the spiritualist movement found a strong application at the beginning of the twentieth century. Particular attention is paid to the development in Těšín Silesia, part of which is part of the industrial agglomeration. In this ethnically mixed area, Spiritism originally brought together members of both Polish and Czech nationalities. Czechs and Poles were united by their reservations about the Catholic Church, which they perceived as a backward institution linked to the ruling Habsburg dynasty. After the creation of Poland and Czechoslovakia, Silesia became the subject of a border dispute between the two newly created states. Some Polish esotericists, disgusted by the involvement of the spiritualist movement in the political agitation against Poland, founded their own organisation &#8211; the Polish Theosophical Society in Těšín Silesia. The departure of part of the membership base resolved not only political disputes within the esoteric scene, but also older ideological tensions about its future spiritual direction. After the division of Těšín in the summer of 1920 between Czechoslovakia and Poland, the Polish Theosophical Society was newly constituted in the Czechoslovakia as a minority, national and religious community. Its leading personality was Andrzej Kajfosz (1889&#8211;1970).

(Anti-)Colonialism, religion and science in Bengal from the perspective of global religious history

AbstractThis article focuses on debates about the relationship between religion, science and national identity that unfolded in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Bengal. Combining perspectives from religious studies and global history, it offers a specific approach to theoretical and methodological issues revolving around entanglement, agency and modernity. This will be operationalized, first, through an exploration of personal networks surrounding the Bengali Tantric pandit Shivachandra Bhattacharya Vidyarnava; his Bengali disciple, philosopher and nationalist educator, Pramathanath Mukhopadhyay and Shivachandra’s British disciple, the judge John Woodroffe. Second, an investigation of the connections between self-referentially ‘orthodox’ societies, so-called reformers, and the Theosophical Society will further illustrate the global exchanges that conditioned and shaped contemporary debates about religion, science and politics. This will complicate and shed new light on the contested relationship between modernity and tradition, or reformism and orthodoxy, opening new perspectives for further dialogue between religious studies and global history.

Kunglig förening: Den teosofiska raja yoga-pedagogiken och det tidiga 1900-talets yogareception

Research on the early 20th century European and American reception of yoga have revealed the significance of esoteric movements like the Theosophical Society in creating the modern, global phenomenon of yoga. Alongside interpretations of yoga as primarily a form of meditation which were common in the literature and, sometimes practice, of movements like Theosophy or Thelema there exist another phenomenon labeled yoga that have received less attention. A system of pedagogy called raja yoga was for several decades among the foremost preoccupations of one of the main global Theosophical movements, the Universal Brotherhood. Under its leader Katherine Tingley, the Universal Brotherhood strove to develop and popularize raja yoga as the solution to the social and spiritual problems of humanity. Focusing on Swedish raja yoga literature of the Universal Brotherhood, this article will explore how Swedish writers imagined and argued for this system of education and spiritual development. Furthermore, the article will investigate some of the complicated connections between this form of pedagogy and the broader trends of the early 20th century European reception of yoga.

Nothing Personal: Blavatsky and Her Indian Interlocutors

Abstract The Theosophical Society was an influential transnational religious movement founded by H. P. Blavatsky and others in 1875. With its theology of the impersonal Divine, Theosophy was particularly influential on the New Age, which inherited a propensity to see the divine in impersonal terms. Offering a corrective to the recent historiographical tendency that focuses solely on Theosophy’s Western aspects, this article analyzes Blavatsky’s written “conversations” on the nature of the Divine with two Indian Theosphists, T. Subba Row (1856–1890) and Mohini Chatterji (1858–1936). Contextualizing these discussions both globally and locally, it reveals Blavatsky’s engagement with Subba Row’s Vedantic reading of John Stuart Mill and her concurrent rejection of Mohini’s Brahmo-Samaj inspired theism. The article considers the power dynamics that lay behind these negotiations. It argues that they involved a mutual drive for legitimacy and were the result of complex transcultural encounters that resist reductionist historiographical tendencies.

Review: Secrecy: Silence, Power, and Religion, by Hugh B. Urban

Review: <i>Secrecy: Silence, Power, and Religion</i>, by Hugh B. Urban

Rajnarayan Basu and His “Science of Religion”: The Emergence of Religious Studies through Exchanges between Bengali and Christian Reformers, Orientalists, and Theosophists

Abstract This article explores the genealogy of the “science of religion” developed by the Bengali intellectual Rajnarayan Basu (1826–1899). One of my central aims is to demonstrate that a “science of religion,” or Religionswissenschaft in the sense of Friedrich Max Müller, has emerged within a global context that was actively shaped by “non-Western” actors. To this end, I will focus on exchanges between the Indian reform movement of the Brahmo Samaj, Christian Unitarians, Transcendentalists, orientalist scholars, and members of the Theosophical Society. All these actors were concerned with the origin of religion, its modern meaning, and its function in shaping the future of society. Building on an analysis of the global exchanges revolving around these issues, special attention is paid to the inherent tensions between religious universalism and a nationalist insistence on “true religion,” which directly pertains to contested demarcations between reform and revival, or modernity and tradition.