Theory Of Mind Research Articles

Theory of Mind Development in Middle Childhood and Adolescence: Accuracy and Preference for Mental-State Reasoning

ABSTRACT While there is a steady increase in research examining growth of theory of mind (ToM) over middle childhood and adolescence, there remains a paucity of studies on how older children employ ToM to interpret the behaviors of others. We conducted two studies and used a new task – the Mr Bean task – based on a wordless video to examine understanding of a variety of mental states and a preference for mental state reasoning in children and adults. Study 1 examined 131 children (5–13 years) and 418 adults in New Zealand and included open-ended questions requiring participants to explain agents’ behaviors. Study 2 also used a Mr Bean video and tested 80 children (6–16 years) and 49 young adults in New Zealand but asked multiple-choice questions, each with a correct mental state option, a correct general reasoning option, and an incorrect version of each option. Our study provided the following novel findings. First, children’s ToM continued to progressively improve from middle childhood to adolescence, and through to adulthood in that, relative to adults, children erred more frequently when they reasoned using mental states. Second, explanations referring to emotions, intentions and cognitions were used more frequently with age. Third, children were less likely to use mental state reasoning and more likely to use general reasoning compared to adults; only adults preferred to use mental state rather than general reasoning. Fourth, the advantage in adult ToM was related to their superior vocabulary but not fluid intelligence. Our findings provide clear evidence that not just ToM accuracy, but also preference for mental state reasoning continue to evolve from middle childhood through to adulthood.

The heart can lie: a preliminary investigation of the role of interoception and theory of mind in deception

Abstract While a large part of the deception literature focuses on lying detection, the factors contributing to one’s ability to lie remain unclear. The present study examined the contribution of Theory of Mind (ToM) and interoception on our ability to lie using a directed lie paradigm with two conditions (“Interrogation” and “Polygraph”), designed to enhance each of the two mechanisms. Given the relatively small sample size (n = 26 × 40 trials), special steps were taken to avoid false positives. Our results suggest that various facets of interoceptive abilities are positively related to the self-rated confidence in one’s own lies, especially when under the belief that bodily signals are being monitored (i.e., in the “Polygraph” condition). Beyond providing evidence for the role of the body in lying and raising interesting questions for deception science, these results carry practical implications for criminology and lie detection protocols.

Blue mind life: how the color blue influences our quality of life

The theory of Blue Mind, which I have researched, studied and practiced since 2020, allows me to address this new chapter “Blue Mind Life”, and continue my multidisciplinary project which requires materialization in different supports and work in several thematic areas, such as health and education in the first instance. As an architect and plastic artist, I have specialized in NeuroArchitecture and Cognitive Sciences to understand even more and in depth how human beings react to the color blue, how it modifies their mood, their body, their gaze and their nervous system. It is a state slightly similar to the sedative effect, where a feeling of happiness and satisfaction emerges, a state of well-being connected to the frequency of no time. The objective is to rethink health and education spaces, enter the Blue Zones, learn their way of life and achieve the goal "Die young while being as old as possible." It is not just about reaching many years of age but about maintaining the best quality of life until the last days.

Neural Pathways of Social Cognition: From Systems Neuroscience to Psychosocial Applications

The neural pathways underlying social cognition form the basis of human interaction, encompassing processes such as empathy, theory of mind, and social decision-making. This research explores the intersection of systems neuroscience and psychosocial applications, unraveling the neural circuits that enable individuals to perceive, interpret, and respond to social stimuli. Key brain regions such as the medial prefrontal cortex, temporoparietal junction, and amygdala play pivotal roles in these processes, facilitating complex functions like perspective-taking and emotional resonance. By integrating insights from neuroimaging, behavioral studies, and computational modeling, this study aims to map the mechanisms that govern social cognition and their disruptions in conditions such as autism, schizophrenia, and social anxiety. The research also emphasizes the translation of these findings into psychosocial interventions, including therapeutic strategies and social skills training programs. Understanding the neural underpinnings of social cognition has far-reaching implications for enhancing interpersonal relationships, fostering inclusivity, and addressing the challenges posed by neuropsychiatric disorders.

A bidirectional association between language development and prosocial behavior in childhood: Evidence from a longitudinal birth cohort in the United Kingdom.

This study investigated a developmental cascade between prosocial and linguistic abilities in a large sample (N = 11,051) from the general youth population in the United Kingdom (50% female, 46% living in disadvantaged neighborhoods, 13% non-White). Cross-lagged panel models showed that verbal ability at age 3 predicted prosociality at age 7, which in turn predicted verbal ability at age 11. Latent growth models also showed that gains in prosociality between 3 and 5 years were associated with increased verbal ability between 5 and 11 years and vice versa. Theory of mind and social competence at age 5 mediated the association between early childhood prosociality and late childhood verbal ability. These results remained robust even after controlling for socioeconomic factors, maternal mental health, parenting microclimate in the home environment, and individual characteristics (sex, ethnicity, and special educational needs). The findings suggest that language skills could be boosted through mentalizing activities and prosocial behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Theory of mind and text comprehension across the lifespan: A meta-analysis.

Researchers argue that theory of mind (ToM) abilities are needed for text (listening or reading) comprehension. Although many studies have supported this claim, findings are mixed and researchers have disagreed on how fundamental this relation is-for example, whether ToM and text comprehension are related merely because of shared variance with verbal and executive function skills. To address these issues more definitively, we conducted a meta-analysis examining ToM and text comprehension, which included 47 independent samples with 5,123 participants ranging in age from 3 to 70 years of age (M = 10.53 years). We found a statistically significant association (r = .33) between ToM and text comprehension across 157 effect sizes. This relation did not differ based on whether data were cross-sectional or longitudinal, the age of participants, or most characteristics of the ToM or comprehension tasks (e.g., the degree to which they were narrative or inferential). However, the effect size was stronger in some languages and for listening comprehension rather than reading comprehension tasks. In longitudinal designs, the effect size did not differ depending on whether ToM was assessed before text comprehension or the reverse. Finally, we conducted meta-analyses controlling for verbal and/or executive function abilities and found that the relation between ToM and text comprehension was significant when controlling for each as well as both abilities (r = .22-.32). The current findings provide the strongest evidence to date that there is a fundamental relation between ToM and text comprehension. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of a social network enhancement intervention for older adults: a feasibility study

BackgroundSocial networks play a critical role in the mental health of older adults. This pilot study investigates the feasibility of a newly developed intervention to enhance older adults’ social networks. This intervention was designed on the Theory of Mind’s foundation and aimed to enhance older adults’ social interaction motivation through theoretical explanations. Furthermore, the courses fostered more social opportunities for the participants through group-based sessions.MethodsThe feasibility of this intervention was tested using a double-blind, two-arm, non-randomized grouping approach. Older individuals residing in two separate residential buildings (n = 31, mean age = 66.81, 48% women) were divided into an intervention group (n = 15) and a control group (n = 16). They attended daily group sessions at a designated location and completed homework assignments. The primary outcomes of this pilot study were the feasibility of the intervention, and secondary outcomes included Theory of Mind levels and social network indicators. Additional outcomes encompassed levels of global mental health and depression.ResultsAll participants completed the pilot intervention and completed assessments. The primary outcomes indicated that the intervention had excellent feasibility, including compliance (attendance and homework completion rates met the standards) and satisfaction (average ratings for all items ranged from 4.47 to 5.00 on a 5-point scale). Interview results revealed that participants in the intervention group found the intervention beneficial for their daily lives and expressed a desire to participate in a formal intervention. Regarding secondary and additional outcomes, compared to the control group, the intervention group exhibited a significant improvement in emotional recognition performance of Theory of Mind. There was a significant increase in the whole network density in the intervention group. There were no significant differences in other social network indicators, global mental health, and depression levels in the intervention group compared to the control group.ConclusionsThe social network enhancement intervention for older adults is feasible. This pilot study has identified several improvements in the courses and tests. It is necessary to carry out a formal course to examine the effectiveness of the intervention on social networks in older adults.Trial registrationRegistration number: ChiCTR2100053779; Reg Date: 29/11/2021.

Neural bases of social facilitation and inhibition: how peer presence affects elementary eye movements.

Social Facilitation/Inhibition (SFI) refers to how others' presence influences task performance positively or negatively. Our previous study revealed that peer presence modulated saccadic eye movements, a fundamental sensorimotor activity. Pro- and anti-saccades were either facilitated or inhibited depending on trial block complexity (Tricoche et al., 2020). In the present fMRI study, we adapted our paradigm to investigate the neural basis of SFI on saccades. Considering inter- and intra-individual variabilities, we evaluated the shared and distinct neural patterns between social facilitation and inhibition. We predicted an involvement of the saccade-related and attention networks, alongside the Theory-of-Mind (ToM) network, with opposite activity changes between facilitation and inhibition. Results confirmed peer presence modulation in fronto-parietal areas related to saccades and attention, in opposite directions for facilitation and inhibition. Additionally, the ventral attention network was modulated during inhibition. Default mode regions, including ToM areas, were also modulated. Finally, pupil size, often linked to arousal, increased with peers and correlated with dorsal attention regions and anterior insula activities. These results suggest that SFI engages task-specific and domain-general networks, modulated differently based on observed social effect. Attention network seemed to play a central role at both basic (linked to arousal or vigilance) and cognitive control levels.

From mind to mind: Understanding the role of mothers in children’s theory of mind

Theory of mind (ToM) enables children to comprehend mental states of themselves and others. In this first study investigating the mediating role of mothers' mental state talk between mothers' sociocognitive skills (i.e., mothers' ToM and parental reflective functioning) and children's ToM, 89 children (M(SD)age = 57.0 months (5.49)) and their mothers from Türkiye participated. Results revealed that mothers with higher prementalization scores used fewer affective and desire words. Mothers exhibiting greater interest and curiosity in mental states used more cognitive words, while those with more proficient ToM skills tended to use more mental state terms indicating certainty (e.g., ‘perhaps’). Furthermore, mothers' use of certainty words mediated the relationship between mothers' ToM and children's ToM. These cross-sectional findings underscore the significant role of mothers' socio-cognitive abilities in mother-child interactions regarding mental states and the development of children's ToM skills, and call for a longitudinal investigation into these relationships.

Neural correlates of preschoolers' passive-viewing false belief: Insights into continuity and change and the function of right temporoparietal activity in theory of mind development.

Behavioral research demonstrates a critical transition in preschooler's mental-state understanding (i.e., theory of mind; ToM), revealed most starkly in performance on tasks about a character's false belief (e.g., about an object's location). Questions remain regarding the neural and cognitive processes differentiating children who pass versus fail behavioral false-belief tasks and the extent to which there is continuity versus change in the ToM neural network. To address these questions, we analyzed event-related spectral power in the electroencephalogram (EEG) to investigate how preschoolers' neural activity during passive viewing of false-belief scenarios related to their explicit behavioral ToM performance. We found that neural activity during passive viewing of false-belief events (6-9Hz EEG 'alpha' suppression in right temporoparietal [RTP] electrodes) strongly related to children's explicit ToM. However, children's RTP alpha suppression differed depending on their explicit behavioral ToM performance: Children who did better on a broad battery of standard ToM tasks and who passed explicit behavioral false-belief tasks showed greater RTP alpha suppression when the character's belief first became false (during the 'location-change' event); whereas children who did worse on the ToM battery and who failed explicit behavioral false-belief tasks showed greater RTP alpha suppression only later when they could evaluate the character's behavior in the context of prior events (during the 'active-search' event). Findings shed light on what differentiates preschoolers who pass versus fail explicit false-belief tasks and raise questions about how to interpret existing neuroscience data from ToM tasks across infancy to adulthood. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Preschool children's neural activity (EEG 6-9Hz suppression in right temporoparietal [RTP] electrodes) during passive-viewing of false-belief events was related to their explicit behavioral theory-of-mind performance. Children who did better on a theory-of-mind (ToM) battery and passed explicit false-belief tasks showed greater RTP alpha suppression when the character's belief first became false. Children who performed worse on the ToM battery and failed explicit false-belief tasks showed greater RTP alpha suppression later when observing the character's search behavior. Findings reveal change in preschoolers' ToM neural correlates and suggest that the presence of RTP activity does not necessarily indicate 'mature' theory of mind.

Language, Theory of Mind and Cognitive skills in Arabic-speaking children with and without autism: Evidence from network and cluster analyses

IntroductionAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by impairments in social interactions, social communication, and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior. Previous studies have reported mixed findings regarding the links between language (i.e., phonology, morphosyntax, lexicon and pragmatics), theory of mind (ToM), executive functions (EFs), and central coherence measures in children with ASD. MethodsA total of 163 Palestinian-Arabic-speaking children aged 4-11 participated: 76 with ASD and 87 with typical language development (TLD). The children`s phonological, morphosyntactic, lexical, and pragmatic skills and verbal and non-verbal ToM abilities were evaluated. Additionally, cognitive assessments included non-verbal IQ, EF, and central coherence processing. ResultsGroup-level results showed that children with ASD scored lower than their TLD peers in all measures. Network analysis revealed robust interconnections between language, ToM, and cognitive skills in both groups. In autistic children, language was a central node, with pragmatics prevailing over morphosyntax and lexicon, while age was central in the TLD group. Cluster analysis identified four language clusters within the ASD group, demonstrating dissociations between language domains: (1) high performance across all domains, (2) moderate performance in phonology and morphosyntax with low pragmatic abilities, (3) moderate performance in phonology and lexicon with low morphosyntax and pragmatics, and (4) moderate phonology and lexicon with extremely poor morphosyntax and pragmatics. Autistic children with enhanced language abilities performed better in verbal and non-verbal ToM and EF tasks. ConclusionsOur findings underscore the variability in language, ToM, and cognitive profiles of autistic children, showing dissociation within and between different domains in some autistic children. These results offer insights for applied interventions.

Social isolation and social cognition: A cross-sectional analysis.

The impact of social isolation on social cognition is not entirely clear. The aim of the study is to investigate the association between social isolation and social cognition. In a population-based sample of 83 individuals aged 50+ years without dementia, we assessed the relationship between social isolation (measured by the Lubben Social Network Scale - LSNS-6) and performance on emotional recognition (measured by the Emotion Recognition Task (ERT)) and on Theory of Mind (ToM) abilities (measured by the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET)), two core aspects of social cognition. No significant association was found between social isolation and ToM abilities for both the unadjusted and adjusted models. Similarly, no significant association was observed between social isolation and emotion recognition. Further research is needed to understand the complex correlation between social relationships and cognitive health, particularly in different cognitive domains, adopting a life course perspective.

A Systematic Review on Social Cognition in ADHD: The Role of Language, Theory of Mind, and Executive Functions

A Systematic Review on Social Cognition in ADHD: The Role of Language, Theory of Mind, and Executive Functions

THE IMPACT OF THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC ON FORMING NEW RELATIONSHIPS: IMPLICATIONS FOR EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, THEORY OF MIND, EMPATHY AND SOCIAL MEDIA

As a fallout of the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, the whole world was put into isolation. During this period, social media saw a record influx of users who used the technology to stay connected. However, the long-lasting effects of the pandemic on interpersonal relationships and mental health remain a burning topic. Thus, the study aims to examine how the pandemic affected our ability to build new interpersonal relationships in connection to aspects of emotional intelligence such as empathy and Theory of Mind (ToM). Furthermore, the study also examines how the use of social media for communication changed after the pandemic. In total, N = 464 subjects (Age: M = 27.07; 47%, F = 25,9; 53%) participated in the study. Empathy, ToM, social media use for communication before and after the pandemic, and the ability to form new relationships before and after the pandemic were assessed. A compelling finding of the study indicates a statistically significant positive relationship between empathy and the ability to form new relationships before and after the pandemic, suggesting that empathy outweighs both emotional intelligence and social media usage in building new relationships. However, no significant relation was found between ToM and the ability to form new relationships before and after the pandemic. Lastly, no relation was found between ToM, empathy, and the use of social media for communication before and after the pandemic. Future studies should examine how the pandemic may have affected other facets of relationship formation and social interaction dynamics in connection with other aspects of emotional intelligence that have not been covered.

Identifying cognitive, affective, and developmental mechanisms linking threat and deprivation with adolescent psychopathology.

The mechanisms linking early-life adversity with psychopathology over the life-course are complex. In this prospective study, we collectively examined cognitive, affective, and developmental mediators previously found to individually link childhood threat and deprivation experiences to adolescent psychopathology to identify the most potent mechanisms. Data came from a community sample of 227 children (mean child age 11.5 ± 0.5 years, 48.5% female) from the Seattle metro area with recruitment designed to reflect diversity in family income. Candidate mechanisms included self-rated pubertal development and task-measured attention bias to threat, emotion regulation, theory of mind, fear learning, inhibitory control, language ability, reasoning, and reward sensitivity. Using a high-dimensional mediation approach, we determined which mediating pathways linking threat and deprivation to psychopathology persisted after controlling for all candidate mechanisms associated with psychopathology. Models additionally controlled for the child's age, sex, early-childhood emotional and behavioral symptoms, poverty, and maternal depression. Blunted reward sensitivity mediated the prospective relationship between threat and internalizing psychopathology, explaining 17.25% (95% CI 1.08%, 69.96%) of this association. Advanced pubertal development was associated with increases in internalizing and externalizing symptoms (standardized associations of 0.16 (95% CI 0.03, 0.29) and 0.17 (95% CI 0.05, 0.29), respectively), but not with adversity. Although deprivation was strongly related to psychopathology, no mechanisms were empirically identified. In a well-characterized community sample, we isolated reward sensitivity as a robust mediator of the prospective association between early-life threat and adolescent internalizing psychopathology. Interventions aimed at bolstering reward sensitivity may mitigate the impact of early-life threat experiences on internalizing problems.

Reassessing Kripke’s Anti-Materialism and Almog’s Challenge

In this text, we point out some obvious commitments of the identity theory of mind which allow the identity theorist to sidestep Saul Kripke’s famous anti-materialist argument. We also argue that a recent paper by Joseph Almog fails to undermine Kripke’s internalism about sensations.

Executive functions and theory of mind development in preschoolers: Insights from NIRS data

Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of executive functions (EFs) in the development of Theory of Mind (ToM) in preschoolers. However, research focusing on young children at the neural level has been limited. This study examined the relationship between EFs and ToM in twenty-nine healthy Japanese preschoolers aged 5–7 years, focusing on neural responses during EF and ToM tasks using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) to monitor prefrontal cortex (PFC) activity. The study utilized EF tasks and the Sally-Anne scenario to assess false- and true-belief understanding, aiming to provide a comprehensive analysis of ToM capabilities. Results indicated that despite advanced EF capabilities and a ceiling effect across all EF tasks, there were no significant correlations between EF performance or verbal ability and ToM task performance. NIRS data revealed no PFC activation during the Stroop task. However, activation was observed in the left and right lateral PFC in the control false belief condition, the left lateral PFC in the false belief condition, and across all PFC regions in the true belief condition during ToM tasks. Significant relationships were found between behavioral performance in ToM tasks and neural activity in key brain regions. The study also identified a complex relationship between false and true belief reasoning, suggesting a nuanced developmental trajectory for ToM. These findings underscore the crucial role of early childhood in the development of ToM and the complex interplay between cognitive functions and neural efficiency in understanding others' mental states.

Increased functional connectivity between brain regions involved in social cognition, emotion and affective-value in psychedelic states induced by N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT).

The modulation of social cognition is suggested as a possible mechanism contributing to the potential clinical efficacy of psychedelics in disorders involving socio-emotional and reward processing deficits. Resting-state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (rs-fMRI) can be used to detect changes in brain connectivity during psychedelic-induced states. Thus, this pharmacoimaging study investigates the effects of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) on functional connectivity in brain areas relevant to social cognition, using a within-subject design in eleven healthy experienced users. The study included both an active and a control condition, conducted at different time points. The active condition involved DMT inhalation, while the control condition did not. Seed-based connectivity was measured for the two core regions involved in theory of mind and emotional processing, respectively, the posterior supramarginal gyrus and the amygdala. DMT increased supramarginal gyrus connectivity with the precuneus, posterior cingulate gyrus, amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex. Additionally, increased connectivity emerged between the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex. These results demonstrate that DMT modulates brain connectivity in socio-emotional and affective-value circuits, advancing our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying the psychedelic experience and its potential therapeutic action.

Does ChatGPT have a typical or atypical theory of mind?

In recent years, the capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT, to imitate human behavioral patterns have been attracting growing interest from experimental psychology. Although ChatGPT can successfully generate accurate theoretical and inferential information in several fields, its ability to exhibit a Theory of Mind (ToM) is a topic of debate and interest in literature. Impairments in ToM are considered responsible for social difficulties in many clinical conditions, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Some studies showed that ChatGPT can successfully pass classical ToM tasks, however, the response style used by LLMs to solve advanced ToM tasks, comparing their abilities with those of typical development (TD) individuals and clinical populations, has not been explored. In this preliminary study, we administered the Advanced ToM Test and the Emotion Attribution Task to ChatGPT 3.5 and ChatGPT-4 and compared their responses with those of an ASD and TD group. Our results showed that the two LLMs had higher accuracy in understanding mental states, although ChatGPT-3.5 failed with more complex mental states. In understanding emotional states, ChatGPT-3.5 performed significantly worse than TDs but did not differ from ASDs, showing difficulty with negative emotions. ChatGPT-4 achieved higher accuracy, but difficulties with recognizing sadness and anger persisted. The style adopted by both LLMs appeared verbose, and repetitive, tending to violate Grice's maxims. This conversational style seems similar to that adopted by high-functioning ASDs. Clinical implications and potential applications are discussed.

Evaluating large language models in theory of mind tasks

Eleven large language models (LLMs) were assessed using 40 bespoke false-belief tasks, considered a gold standard in testing theory of mind (ToM) in humans. Each task included a false-belief scenario, three closely matched true-belief control scenarios, and the reversed versions of all four. An LLM had to solve all eight scenarios to solve a single task. Older models solved no tasks; Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT)-3-davinci-003 (from November 2022) and ChatGPT-3.5-turbo (from March 2023) solved 20% of the tasks; ChatGPT-4 (from June 2023) solved 75% of the tasks, matching the performance of 6-y-old children observed in past studies. We explore the potential interpretation of these results, including the intriguing possibility that ToM-like ability, previously considered unique to humans, may have emerged as an unintended by-product of LLMs' improving language skills. Regardless of how we interpret these outcomes, they signify the advent of more powerful and socially skilled AI-with profound positive and negative implications.