Theory-based Explanations Research Articles

A historical contingency hypothesis for population ecology

Assessments of historical contingency have advanced our understanding of adaptive radiation and community ecology, but little attention has been given to assessing the importance of historical contingency in population ecology. An obstacle has been the unmet need to conceptualize historical contingencies for populations in a manner that allows for their explanatory power to be assessed and quantified so that it can be directly compared with the explanatory power of statistical models representing other hypotheses or theory-based explanations. Here we conceptualize historical contingencies as a series of random events characterized by (1) significant legacy effects that are comparable in length to the waiting time between such events, and (2) the disparate nature of individual events in the series. From that conceptualization, we present a simple quantitative framework for assessing the explanatory power of historical contingencies in population ecology and apply it to an existing long-term dataset on the predator-prey system in Isle Royale National Park. The population-level phenomenon that we focused on was predation rate because it is a synthesis of three basic elements in population ecology (predator abundance, prey abundance and kill rate). We also compared the explanatory power of models of the historical contingency hypothesis to a wide-range of alternative, theory-based, statistical models used to assess underlying mechanisms or forecast future dynamics. Models of the historical contingency hypothesis explained over half of the interannual variation in predation rate and performed similarly, or better than, the vast majority of alternative, theory-based, models. Those findings highlight the potential value of reconsidering the way that population ecologists traditionally attempt to explain phenomena. We also discuss how this new conceptualization of the historical contingency hypothesis can also be valuable for synthesizing several other important ecological concepts of broad significance, especially reddened spectra, tipping points, alternative stable states, and ecological surprises. If the historical contingency hypothesis were found to be broadly applicable, then it would likely explain why ecologists are conspicuously poor at forecasting future dynamics.

Drawing a Portrayal of Science Teachers’ Epistemic Cognitions Around Different Concepts Characterizing Science Education

AbstractThe objective of this descriptive study is to provide a detailed examination of science teachers’ perspectives regarding scientific knowledge, science learning, science concepts, and science teaching. A total of 304 science teachers created metaphors to express their cognitions about the epistemological aspects of their work. A specifically designed metaphor construction task was used to capture the participants’ epistemic cognitions. The participants’ metaphorical reasoning was captured since the metaphors might deliver experience-based conceptions, perceptions, beliefs, or comprehensions about four concepts regarding epistemic cognition. In-depth, descriptive analysis was undertaken through open, axial, and selective coding procedures with higher validity and reliability. The participants’ epistemic cognitions were gathered around five-order themes: function (accepting science knowledge and science concepts and their teaching/learning as vital entities by adopting an instrumentalist or tool-based perspective), personal epistemological stance (seeing science knowledge and science learning as an endless and immortal accumulation of factual knowledge), motivational construct (scientific knowledge attaches importance so it should be taught in the school systems in the science lessons), sociological construct (science knowledge provides power), and pedagogical construct (not the science knowledge but the science concepts should be taught in the schools in the science lesson). This study concluded that the participant science teachers mostly held conventional orientations in externalizing their epistemic cognitions. Theory-based explanations are presented in terms of the participants’ traditional epistemic orientations in the sense of future directions of further research.

Improving Scaling Performance in Research for Development: Learning from a Realist Evaluation of the Scaling Readiness Approach

Complexity-sensitive decision support approaches (CSDSA) have gained prominence in the research for development (R4D) sector. However, limited attention has been given to critically examining the underlying causal assumptions of CSDSAs and their overall effectiveness in navigating complexity and achieving desired outcomes. Scaling Readiness has emerged as a novel CSDSA that is increasingly applied in R4D programs in low- and middle-income countries to improve the scaling of innovation. This study offers theory-based explanations on the extent to which Scaling Readiness supports evidence-based design, implementation and monitoring of scaling strategies in two R4D interventions. The contribution of Scaling Readiness is influenced by various contextual factors, including pre-existing partnerships and established institutional intervention project and performance management practices. The findings underscore the significance of investing in broader institutional impact culture growth. This includes critical evaluation of how funding, incentive, and performance mechanisms enable or constrain evidence-based decision-making and adaptive management at intervention and organizational level towards achieving Sustainable Development Goals.

One Hit Wonders: Why Do New Firms Largely Not Deliver a Second Product?

The inability of small and early firms to successfully innovate beyond their first product is a strategic problem that has been a topic of academic attention for decades. Yet the phenomenon has not abated in practice. Extant research has most often focused on the search and planning stages, and applied the resource-based view for operational problems (e.g. within R&D), for explanations and solutions. This paper tests hypotheses that emerged from our initial field research and also builds on prior scholarship. To test hypotheses, we performed a full census of all small, newer U.S. software firms and measured the magnitude of this innovation problem (scarce follow-on products) in small/newer business settings. It undertakes to understand two constructs: 1. the degree to which follow-on innovation projects (the next product) may deteriorate more than all other R&D projects in newer firms after the first product is released , and 2. to test theory-based explanations for “the why” any such deterioration may occur. The research quantifies the following: while firms do plan for follow-on innovations (the next product), these project types become uniquely resource deprived over time from their original plan when compared to the rersource changes made to all other competing R&D projects of the firm. Furthermore, our behavioral-based hypotheses from both agency and resource dependence theories are operationalized and tested for explanatory significance.

Culture and emotion in Paralympic swimming medalists

The purpose of the present study was to examine if cultural identity was related to the emotional experiences of Paralympic (N = 83) swimmers’ upon winning medals at the 2016 Paralympic Games. Paralympic athletes’ countries (N = 5) were scored on Hofstede’s (2011) six cultural dimensions and athletes who won medals had their facial expressions analyzed to determine levels of basic emotions (i.e., happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, disgust, fear, and neutral) based on Ekman’s (1993) neuro-cultural theory of emotion. After controlling for medal won, and time and place expectation proxies, we found that happiness was negatively associated with long/short term orientation (r = –0.313, p < 0.004) and positively linked to indulgence/restraint (r = 0.210, p < 0.06). The emotion of neutral was positively associated with power distance (r = 0.239, p < 0.032) and long term/short term orientation (r = 0.290, p < 0.009) while being negatively linked to indulgence (r = –0.276, p < 0.013). Based on an abductive theory of the scientific method (Haig, 2005; 2008) we formed plausible theory-based explanations for our findings and concluded, given our study is the first of its nature, that researchers should continue this line of inquiry.

The effects of physical activity timing and complexity on episodic memory: A randomized controlled trial

The role of two types of acute physical activity (PA) bouts were assessed on young adults’ free-recall and recognition memory in two experiments, which differed in the temporal relation of PA and word encoding. Before or following training on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Task, participants performed a simple two-step dance, a complex four-step dance, or remained seated. Hypotheses proposed that PA prior to encoding and complex PA would enhance PA’s mnemonic benefits. Memory assessed post-PA, 24 h, and 7 days after training indicated that timing and complexity of PA did not impact free-recall or recognition memory. Findings differ from a previous study showing complex PA benefited motor learning more than simple PA (Tomporowski & Pendleton, 2018). The inconsistency may be due to different working memory processes underlying consolidation and retrieval of procedural or episodic information. Theory-based explanations regarding memory storage and retrieval are proposed to elucidate this selective process.

Patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) use in post-stroke patient care and clinical practice: a realist synthesis protocol

BackgroundThere is growing interest in the use of routine patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) to influence the care of individual patients with stroke. However, there are significant gaps in our understanding as to how PROMs influence post-stroke patient care and clinical practice. This is due to factors including the number of purported uses for PROMs and that PROMs are complex interventions, which attempt to stimulate varied actions or behaviours. Therefore, the objective of this realist synthesis is to offer theory-based explanations as to how PROMs influence post-stroke clinical practice and patient care.MethodsThis is a protocol for a realist synthesis, which involves three distinct phases: theory building (phase 1), theory testing and refinement (phase 2) and synthesis (phase 3). Phase 1 will develop initial rough programme theories (IRPTs), through literature searches (from January 2000 onwards) of MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Cochrane Library and the grey literature. Only secondary sources will be included that contribute to the development of IRPTs. Only two IRPTs, prioritised by the stakeholder group, will be taken forward to be tested and refined during phase 2. Further novel searches will be employed in phase 2, utilising the same criteria as phase 1; however, phase 2 searches will not utilise grey literature searches, and only primary research studies that contribute to the refinement of programme theories under investigation will be included. Two independent reviewers will screen and select all returned results. The reviewers will code and annotate relevant sources, resulting in ‘fragments’ to be extracted and graded based on the richness of their contribution to explanation and causal insight. Further, these fragments will be organised into ‘Context-Mechanism-Outcome’ configurations. Phase 3 of the review will involve the synthesis of context-mechanism-outcome configurations to form middle-range theory-based explanations and developed logic models for stakeholders to understand how PROMs in post-stroke clinical practice and patient care work for whom, how and under what circumstances.DiscussionThe resulting realist synthesis will provide guidance on the implementation of PROMs within routine post-stroke clinical practice and patient care and act as a touchstone for further testing and refinement of PROMs programmes.Systematic review registrationPROSPERO CRD42020138649.

PSIV-34 Program Chair Poster Pick: Validating adapted scales to measure individual and situational interest in animal science undergraduates

Abstract Efforts to improve the quality of teaching and learning in animal science are forestalled by the lack of psychometric scales validated in our disciplinary context. Researchers have used instruments validated outside of animal science reliably, but this approach has questionable validity. The objective of our research was to adapt and validate scales to measure the motivational variables individual interest (II) and situational interest (SI) in introductory animal sciences students. A total of 254 introductory course students in two consecutive semesters rated their interest in animal sciences on unidimensional II (8-item) and 3-factor SI (11-item) scales previously validated for psychology undergraduates. After adapting instruments with wording specific to animal sciences, we conducted a series of confirmatory factor analyses. First, we discovered and removed two problematic items from the unidimensional II scale, offered theory-based explanations for differential item functioning in animal sciences students, and validated a revised II scale (λ = 0.74 - 0.94, CFI = 0.995, RMSEA = 0.027). Next, we confirmed the validity and reliability of the SI scale and its three subscales (λ = 0.83 - 0.96, CFI = 0.979, RMSEA = 0.048). Finally, to explore the dimensionality of SI in our population, we fitted a bifactor model and computed ancillary indices. Results supported the reliability and empirical validity of the bifactor model as an alternative conceptualization of SI (CFI = 0.986, RMSEA = 0.044). and indicated that the SI scale is mostly unidimensional (ω H = 0.923). This suggests that total SI scores can be used as a composite measure but that subscale scores are substantially contaminated by the general SI factor and should not be interpreted as unique. We present the finalized scales, recommendations for their use in animal sciences classrooms, and suggestions for future research.

A Review of Research on Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning: Implications for Research and Practice

As a pedagogical approach, process oriented guided inquiry learning (POGIL) allows students to socially construct knowledge through iterative cycles that include three steps: exploring a model, inventing a concept, and applying the resulting ideas. A growing body of research indicates that relative to lecture-based approaches, POGIL supports student learning more effectively. In this article, we review research related to POGIL, focusing on the nature of the evidence used to evaluate its impact on student learning, as well as trends related to relevant features of the studies, such as theoretical and methodological choices. We find that this body of research has typically focused on quantitative measures that broadly assess student outcomes, with fewer studies concentrating on qualitative, theory-based explanations of student learning. Moreover, key features of POGIL implementation (e.g., theoretical underpinnings, activity structure, process skills, and student roles) remain understudied. On the basis of the review, we propose suggestions for future research and practice.

Gender Disparity in Pennsylvania Child Abuse and Neglect Sentencing Outcomes

Sentencing studies consistently show that male offenders receive more severe sentences than females. However, theory-based explanations for gender disparities in sentencing, which posit lenience is partially based on caregiver status, may be less relevant for crimes against children. This study leverages Pennsylvania Sentencing Commission data to assess sentence type and length among adults convicted of child neglect or physical abuse between 2006 and 2016. Employing bivariate and multivariate statistics, we found that, although female perpetrators make up the majority of child neglect and physical abuse perpetrators in the Child Protective Services system, they are a minority of those convicted. If convicted, women received less harsh sentences than men, consistent with the disparate gender patterns found in general criminal sentencing research.

Theory-based explanation as intervention.

Cogent explanations are an indispensable means of providing new information and an essential component of effective education. Beyond this, we argue that there is tremendous untapped potential in using explanations to motivate behavior change. In this article we focus on health interventions. We review four case studies that used carefully tailored explanations to address gaps and misconceptions in people's intuitive theories, providing participants with a conceptual framework for understanding how and why some recommended behavior is an effective way of achieving a health goal. These case studies targeted a variety of health-promoting behaviors: (1) children washing their hands to prevent viral epidemics; (2) parents vaccinating their children to stem the resurgence of infectious diseases; (3) adults completing the full course of an antibiotic prescription to reduce antibiotic resistance; and (4) children eating a variety of healthy foods to improve unhealthy diets. Simply telling people to engage in these behaviors has been largely ineffective-if anything, concern about these issues is mounting. But in each case, teaching participants coherent explanatory frameworks for understanding health recommendations has shown great promise, with such theory-based explanations outperforming state-of-the-art interventions from national health authorities. We contrast theory-based explanations both with simply listing facts, information, and advice and with providing a full-blown educational curriculum, and argue for providing the minimum amount of information required to understand the causal link between a target behavior and a health outcome. We argue that such theory-based explanations lend people the motivation and confidence to act on their new understanding.

Higher education policy change in the European higher education area: divergence of quality assurance systems in England and the Netherlands

In the context of globalising higher education (HE) policies, there is an increasing interest among scholars in detecting patterns of policy change, including the rate and magnitude of policy change and the direction of change (convergence or divergence) This paper adds to that literature by comparing the pattern of policy change and by providing theory-based explanations for HE policy change. The national quality assurance (QA) policies for universities in England and the Netherlands were compared (1985–2005) based on an analytical framework drawing on new institutionalism. Key findings were that both QA systems moved in the direction of an extrinsic QA orientation, but the differences between the two systems were larger in 2005 and in 1985. The degree of policy change in England was more incremental, the Dutch case showing rather radical change in 2002. These dissimilarities can be ascribed to the different policy change mechanism: bricolage and translation.

Centrality of enactive experiences, framing, and motivation to student teachers’ emerging professional identity

Professional identity has emerged as a common theme in teacher development research, and the student-teaching practicum is often identified as foundational to identity development. In the context of the student-teaching practicum, interactions with cooperating teachers and pupils are believed to comprise the press for professional identity development, though theory-based explanations are often neglected in the literature, and findings are not always consistent. To address this issue, we used grounded theory to articulate a model explaining the relations among three constructs important to the process of identity development of student teachers (n = 14). Our findings are organized around a model that highlights the phenomenon of “negotiating who I am as a teacher,” which helps us describe differences between student teachers who changed identity vs. those that did not, and psychological and contextual reasons for renegotiation of identity. Discussion focuses on comparisons with previous models and possible implications for teacher education.

To Trust or Not to Trust? What Matters in Local Government-Vendor Relationships?

Relational contracting or collaborative governance has come to the forefront of scholarly studies of government privatization efforts. The concept of trust (between contracting governments and their vendors) is rising in importance as one of the central tenets of this type of governance. What is largely understudied in the midst of this increasing attention to the topic is identifying how and under what conditions trust is formed and sustained. Borrowing from economic, organizational, sociological, and management theories, we develop competing hypotheses to examine what determines the extent of trust contracting governments display toward their service providers. Our findings suggest that local governments tend to place more confidence in their vendors’ faithfulness and honesty when their contracting partners are from the same sector (i.e., other governmental units), had known reputations prior to the relationship, have strong community ties, and perform their tasks well. Interestingly, several economic theory-based explanations—rational choice and game theory, social exchange theory, and transaction cost economics—find only limited support.

Drug Therapy of Post-Stroke Aphasia: A Review of Current Evidence

This review considers the role of drug therapy in the treatment of post-stroke aphasia, the evidence for efficacy of different agents, and the theory-based explanations of drug-related benefits for aphasia rehabilitation. Pharmacological interventions modulating stroke-induced disruption of diverse neurotransmitters may improve language and communication deficits in aphasic patients through facilitation of brain plasticity and long-term potentiation. However, benefits are not evident for all compounds and refinement in clinical trial designs is required. Some pharmacological trials have failed because drug treatment was not combined with speech-language therapy, while other trials combining drugs with intensive model-driven therapies also failed probably because of short-trial duration, inadequate sample selection, or lack of drug action. Preliminary data reveals that combining neuroscience-based intensive aphasia techniques (constraint-induced aphasia therapy) and drugs acting on cholinergic and glutamatergic neurotransmitter systems are associated with better outcomes than other strategies and long-term maintenance of benefits. Although further studies are needed, current state of the evidence suggests that drug therapy may play a key role in the treatment of post-stroke aphasia.

To Honor and Obey: Honor, Transgression and Conflict Escalation

This paper situates the topic of 'honor' in the middle ground between notions of identity and perceptions of rule violation, which is then treated as a signaling and mobilizational element in the escalation of conflict (for example, as either righting a wrong or as punishing a transgressor). Inherent in the discussion of honor is the notion of transgression (as causing dishonor) which then requires redress. This paper explores the relationship between rule violation and perceived injustice as proximate starting points for a reinvigorated discourse of conflict escalation, inclusive of socially constructed elements such as honor. An honor-framed discourse can be viewed as a potential crisis signal of impending conflict escalation as well as a medium for comprehending escalation itself, especially in terms of appreciating 'appropriate' resolutions to conflict as punishment for rule violation. I compare honor within prevalent IR Theory-based explanations of the conflict (e.g., game theory/rational choice, realist) to a social-constructivist explanation involving honor, identity, and punishment of norm transgression. I argue that 'standard' approaches have a difficult stretch 'explaining' much less predicting the conflict (the puzzlement thus producing Borges' description of the Falkland/Malvinas War as 'two bald men fighting over a comb', which has now entered the public lexicon to describe 'irrational' conflicts). I conclude arguing that the international system is best understood as a social system, in which moral norms such as honor matter. Discourses of honor may then be viewed as having predictive power in explaining why conflicts escalate, and originate, in a norm and value-laden international system. Further case study research is recommended, especially for otherwise 'irrational' conflicts such as the Falklands/Malvinas War; a need to recognize the social basis of the international system is also suggested, along with a means of measuring socio-cultural difference.

Using Multisource Feedback to Develop Leaders: Applying Theory and Research to Improve Practice

The problem and the solution . Empirical research suggests that, on average, the changes made by leaders after receiving multisource feedback (MSF) are positive, but fairly small. Four sets of explanations for these results are analyzed in this article: potential limitations in the design of previous studies on MSF, the psychometric characteristics of MSF instruments, flaws in implementing MSF systems, and theory-based explanations of development following receipt of feedback. Models of development, feedback, and MSF suggest that it is unrealistic to expect MSF to lead to development for all leaders. Implications for practice and research are discussed. MSF can help many leaders develop, but only when associated development programs are correctly designed and implemented.

Improvements in Self-Concept Associated with Reductions in Negative Mood in Preadolescents Enrolled in an After-School Physical Activity Program

Preadolescents enrolled in either a 3 times per week, 12-week exercise program (n = 50) or a no-exercise program control condition (n = 42) during their after-school care, were assessed for indication of whether exercise-induced changes in self-concept and overall negative mood were negatively correlated. Significant improvements in ratings of self-concept and of negative mood were found over 12 wk. Inverse relationships were found between changes in physical self-concept with overall self-concept and negative mood (r = -.40 and -.36, respectively). Results supported the positive effect of exercise on the assessed psychological factors in preadolescents. Cognitive behavioral theory-based explanations of the findings were discussed.

Toward Expert Thinking: How curriculum case writing prompts the development of theory-based professional knowledge in student teachers

The present paper explores what, and how, student teachers may learn about theory and practice from writing cases, and examines some pedagogical features that may contribute to these results. Drawing on data collected from our course "Principles of Learning for Teaching", including student cases from outline to final drafts and students' course reflections, we found that students' successive case drafts demonstrated a development from naïve generalizations to sophisticated, theory-based explanations of the issues at play in their cases. In particular, we suggest that students' cases demonstrated some of the moves that Berliner (1986, 1991) identified as characteristic of more "expert" thinking about teaching. We propose that reading theory in context with writing cases, that sharing cases with peer readers, that specific, theoretically grounded, and concrete feedback from instructors, and that providing multiple opportunities for revision may have been most useful in helping student teachers learn to think like a teacher.

The Interplay of Subjective Essentialism and Entitativity in the Formation of Stereotypes

In line with our subjective essentialist view of stereotypes (Yzerbyt, Rocher, & Schadron, 1997), we propose that two classes of factors that mutually reinforce each other influence the perception of groups. The perception of a strong level of similarity and organization among group members (i.e., group entitativity) suggests the existence of a deep essence that would account for the detected regularities. Conversely, the existence of naïve theories regarding the presence of an underlying core encourages the search for resemblances and connections within the group. After a short presentation of the recent literature dealing with the concepts of entitativity and essentialism, we review a series of studies from our laboratory showing the impact of entitativity on essentialism as well as the influence of essentialism on entitativity. We also provide empirical evidence for this bidirectional process from both the outsider and the insider perspective. Finally, we examine the potential role of cultural differences both in the ascription of a fundamental nature to an entitative assembly of people and in the use of a priori naïve theories to create surface similarity among group members. As a set, these efforts point to the importance of taking into account the constant dialogue between perceiver's theory-based explanations and group member's perceptual characteristics if one wishes to understand group stereotypes.