Theoretically-relevant Variables Research Articles

Measuring normative obligation to obey the police: An empirical assessment of a new police legitimacy scale

PurposeThis study empirically evaluates a normative obligation to obey the police scale that was introduced by Pósch et al. (2021) to address problems with traditional obligation measures. The objective is twofold: (1) to assess the measurement qualities of the scale, and (2) to test the scale's direct and mediating effects on theoretically-relevant variables. MethodsUsing survey data from a national opt-in online sample (N = 1509), this study employs exploratory and confirmatory factor-analytic techniques to assess the scale's underlying structure. Path analysis using maximum-likelihood estimation and bootstrapped standard errors is used to test the direct and mediating effects. ResultsThe factor models indicate that the normative obligation to obey the police scale is a unique latent construct, which is distinguishable from an obligation measure rooted in coercion and dull compulsion. The results from the path model demonstrate that normative obligation to obey the police is associated with a higher willingness to cooperate with police. The indirect effects show that the normative obligation scale mediates the association between procedural justice of the police and willingness to cooperate. The direct and indirect effects do not achieve statistical significance in the path model when compliance with the law is specified as the criterion variable. ConclusionsThis study highlights some of the challenges associated with operationalizing police legitimacy. Nevertheless, the evidence is encouraging and supports Pósch et al.'s normative obligation to obey the police scale.

A direct comparison of the temporal stability and criterion validities of experiential and retrospective global measures of subjective well-being

Within the past several decades, scholars have expressed concerns regarding the psychometric properties of global, retrospective self-reports of well-being (e.g., life satisfaction scales). This has led to the development of purportedly psychometrically superior experiential measures of well-being, such as the day reconstruction method. However, relatively few studies have directly compared the psychometric properties of global and experiential well-being measures. The present study was a one-month longitudinal design in which we collected up to three measures of (1) global well-being and (2) experiential well-being as measured via the day reconstruction method. These data were used to examine the temporal stability in both types of measures. Moreover, we also examined the criterion-related validity of global and experiential well-being by examining their correlations with theoretically-relevant variables. Results indicated that the majority of variance in all well-being variables was stable across one month—with global life satisfaction being the most stable and experiential negative affect being the least stable. Moreover, in our study, the criterion-related validities for global and experiential well-being were similar. These results seem to affirm the reliability and validity of global measures, and suggest that global and experiential measures of well-being may have similar psychometric properties.

PrEP Stigma, HIV Stigma, and Intention to Use PrEP among Women in New York City and Philadelphia.

Stigma is an important contributor to the continued HIV epidemic in the United States (US). In 2016, women made up nearly one in five of all new infections. Pre-exposure HIV Prophylaxis or PrEP is a medication that can be taken to prevent HIV acquisition; however, PrEP is significantly underutilized by women at risk for infection. How PrEP stigma relates to PrEP initiation among women is not well understood. Surveys were completed by 160 PrEP-eligible women aged 18-55 in Philadelphia, PA and New York City, NY. Associations between PrEP stigma, HIV stigma, and PrEP initiation intention were modeled using multinomial logistic regression, controlling for sociodemographic and theoretically-relevant variables. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 55 years (M = 40.2; SD = 11.78). Most (79%) identified as Black or African-American and/or Latina and 36% had completed high-school or less. Higher PrEP stigma was significantly associated with lower PrEP initiation intention, while controlling for other theoretically-relevant and sociodemographic variables. HIV stigma was not related to PrEP initiation intention. HIV prevention interventions seeking to increase PrEP initiation among PrEP-eligible, urban women need to address the role that PrEP stigma plays in PrEP uptake.

Bluffed by the dealer: Distinguishing false pleas from false confessions.

The United States convicts over one million people of felonies each year without affording the resources of a trial. Instead, these convictions are attained in plea bargains. The current research investigated potential differences between pleas and confessions to determine whether new experimental research on plea-bargaining is warranted, or whether the research on false confessions can be extended to pleas as well. Given the exploratory nature of this work, multiple theoretically-relevant variables were measured so that multiple potential differences between pleas and confessions could be explored. The study employed a 2 (innocent or guilty) x 2 (plea or confession) x 2 (evidence-bluff or no-bluff) between-participants design. Participants were recruited for a study described as examining problem solving. Once at the lab, all participants were paired with a confederate posing as another participant. The participant and confederate were asked to complete problems both independently (individual) and together (team). Guilty participants were asked to provide help on one of the individual problems by the confederate. Innocent participants were never asked for help. All participants were later accused of cheating on an individual problem. Participants in confession conditions were then asked to sign a statement admitting guilt. Participants in plea conditions were asked to sign a statement agreeing to work 20 hours in the research lab in exchange for dropping the accusation. Participants in evidence-bluff conditions were told that a video camera recorded the problemsolving phase of the study and could reveal whether cheating actually occurred. The theoretically-relevant individual difference variables did not consistently differentiate pleas from confessions. A hypothesized interaction between the evidence-bluff and plea-confession conditions on acceptance outcomes did not materialize either. Nevertheless, some evidence emerged indicating that pleas and confessions might involve different processes. Specifically,

Exploring the utility of entitlement in understanding sexual aggression

Purpose Sexual aggression on college campuses has received a great deal of research attention. Little criminological theory, however, has systematically linked individual-level risk factors for sexual aggression with broader societal factors like patriarchy. DeKeseredy and Schwartz (1993) proposed that societal patriarchy is translated into individual attitudes of male sexual proprietariness and entitlement, which provide motivation and justifications for sexual violence. Methods This study explored the concept of entitlement through various measures and demonstrated the utility of the concept by linking it with other theoretically-relevant variables, including self-control, sexual partners, use of pornography, adversarial sexual beliefs, and rape myth adherence. Results Entitlement was significantly correlated with theoretically-relevant variables in the expected directions. Additionally, entitlement was able to distinguish sexually aggressive and nonaggressive men. Multivariate models provided support for the theoretical assertion that entitlement fosters rape-supportive attitudes and behaviors, which in turn was related to sexual aggression. Conclusions Entitlement is an important concept in understanding sexual aggression, and the causal relationships implied by theory should be explored further in future research. Implications and directions for future research and theory are discussed.

The Adherence Estimator: a brief, proximal screener for patient propensity to adhere to prescription medications for chronic disease

ABSTRACTObjective: To conceptualize, develop, and provide preliminary psychometric evidence for the Adherence Estimator – a brief, three-item proximal screener for the likelihood of non-adherence to prescription medications (medication non-fulfillment and non-persistence) for chronic disease.Research design and methods: Qualitative focus groups with 140 healthcare consumers and two internet-based surveys of adults with chronic disease, comprising a total of 1772 respondents, who were self-reported medication adherers, non-persisters, and non-fulfillers. Psychometric tests were performed on over 150 items assessing 14 patient beliefs and skills hypothesized to be related to medication non-adherence along a proximal–distal con-tinuum. Psychometric tests included, but were not limited to, known-groups discriminant validity at the scale and item level. The psychometric analyses sought to identify: (1) the specific multi-item scales that best differentiated self-reported adherers from self-reported non-adherers (non-fulfillers and non-persisters) and, (2) the single best item within each prioritized multi-item scale that best differentiated self-reported adherers from self-reported non-adherers (non-fulfillers and non-persisters).Results: The two rounds of psychometric testing identified and cross-validated three proximal drivers of self-reported adherence: perceived concerns about medications, perceived need for medications, and perceived affordability of medications. One item from each domain was selected to include in the Adherence Estimator using a synthesis of psychometric results gleaned from classical and modern psychometric test theory. By simple summation of the weights assigned to the category responses of the three items, a total score is obtained that is immediately interpretable and completely transparent. Patients can be placed into one of three segments based on the total score – low, medium, and high risk for non-adherence. Sensitivity was 88% – of the non-adherers, 88% would be accurately classified as medium or high risk by the Adherence Estimator. The three risk groups differed on theoretically-relevant variables external to the Adherence Estimator in ways consistent with the hypothesized proximal-distal continuum of adherence drivers.Conclusions: The three-item Adherence Estimator measures three proximal beliefs related to intentional non-adherence (medication non-fulfillment and non-persistence). Preliminary evidence of the validity of the Adherence Evidence supports its intended use to segment patients on their propensity to adhere to a newly-prescribed prescription medication. The Adherence Estimator is readily scored and is easily interpretable. Due to its brevity and transparency, it should prove to be practical for use in everyday clinical practice and in disease management for adherence quality improvement. Study limitations related to sample representation and self reports of chronic disease and adherence behaviors were discussed.

Specificity of social anxiety disorder as a risk factor for alcohol and cannabis dependence

Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is highly comorbid with alcohol use disorders (AUDs) and cannabis dependence. However, the temporal sequencing of these disorders has not been extensively studied to determine whether SAD serves as a specific risk factor for problematic substance use. The present study examined these relationships after controlling for theoretically-relevant variables (e.g., gender, other Axis I pathology) in a longitudinal cohort over approximately 14 years. The sample was drawn from participants in the Oregon Adolescent Depression Project. After excluding those with substance use disorders at baseline, SAD at study entry was associated with 6.5 greater odds of cannabis dependence (but not abuse) and 4.5 greater odds of alcohol dependence (but not abuse) at follow-up after controlling for relevant variables (e.g., gender, depression, conduct disorder). The relationship between SAD and alcohol and cannabis dependence remained even after controlling for other anxiety disorders. Other anxiety disorders and mood disorders were not associated with subsequent cannabis or alcohol use disorder after controlling for relevant variables. Among the internalizing disorders, SAD appears to serve as a unique risk factor for the subsequent onset of cannabis and alcohol dependence.

Incremental validity of anxiety sensitivity in relation to Marijuana withdrawal symptoms

The present investigation examined the relation between anxiety sensitivity (AS) and marijuana withdrawal severity among 84 (47 female) young adult marijuana smokers. As expected, after covarying for the theoretically-relevant variables of frequency of past 30-day marijuana use, number of cigarettes smoked per day, volume of alcohol consumed, and anxious arousal as well as anhedonic depressive symptoms, both the global AS factor and the AS-mental incapacitation concerns factor were significantly related to the severity of retrospectively reported marijuana withdrawal symptoms. Results are discussed in relation to better understanding cognitive-emotional variables related to the marijuana withdrawal.

Fear of pain in orofacial pain patients

In the present study, we examined whether fear of pain, dental fear, general indices of psychological distress, and self-reported stress levels differed between 40 orofacial pain patients and 40 gender and age matched control general dental patients. We also explored how fear of pain, as measured by the Fear of Pain Questionnaire-III (J Behav Med 21 (1998) 389), relates to established measures of psychological problems in our sample of patients. Finally, we examined whether fear of pain uniquely and significantly predicts dental fear and psychological distress relative to other theoretically-relevant psychological factors. Our results indicate that fear of severe pain and anxiety-related distress, broadly defined, are particularly elevated in orofacial pain patients relative to matched controls. Additionally, fear of pain shares a significant relation with dental fear but not other general psychological symptomology, and uniquely and significantly predicts dental fear relative to other theoretically-relevant variables. Taken together, these data, in conjunction with other recent studies, suggest greater attention be placed on understanding the fear of pain in orofacial pain patients and its relation to dental fear and anxiety.

Unemployment and the homicide rate: A paradox resolved?

The heretofore perplexing relationship between the unemployment and homicide rates is reevaluated through a dynamic, macro social indicator model of the postwar United States. Whereas prior research has failed to demonstrate consistently an empirical connection between economic conditions and crime rates, it is shown here that when attention is given to both the level of unemployment and recent changes in unemployment, the relationship between the unemployment rate and the homicide rate becomes more intelligible. The level of unemployment is negatively related to the homicide rate while annual changes in unemployment are positively related to the homicide rate. These paradoxical effects of unemployment remain even after controlling for other theoretically-relevant variables. Interpretation of the results revolves around the dichotomy of motivation and opportunity as components of human behavior.