Theological Thinking Research Articles

The Christian interpretations on the nature of heaven’s mandate in late Ming and early Qing dynasties

This paper aims to examine in detail the Christian interpretations on the Confucian concept of the nature of the heaven’s mandate [天命之性] during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from historical and textual perspective. Neo-Confucians of the Song Dynasty interpret the nature of the heaven’s mandate as human nature, believing that heaven endowed humans with reason, known as the heavenly principle [天理]. In the late Ming period, Christian missionaries such as Jesuits in China used Confucian classics to convey Christian thoughts, interpreting the heaven’s mandate as God’s mandate and the nature of the heaven’s mandate as the spirituality bestowed by God, which is equated with the soul. They also used the nature of the heaven’s mandate as a criterion for determining the authenticity of a teaching (religion[教]), asserting that Christianity is the true teaching (religion). Thus, Christianity in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties provides a new interpretation on the nature of the heaven’s mandate and promotes the integration of Christian and Confucian thoughts through this interpretation.Contribution: The paper provides a detailed review of the history of Christian interpretations on the nature of the heaven’s mandate during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Currently, there is limited scholarly research on the theological thoughts of Christianity during this period. This study not only enhances the understanding of the new interpretations by Christianity but also aids in comprehending the theological ideas of Christianity during the late Ming and early Qing periods. By reinterpreting Confucian classics, Christianity endowed them with new meanings, offering valuable references for the localisation of Christian theology and the study of cross-cultural exchange.

Analisis Semantik Konsep Rezeki dalam Tafsir Al-Misbah dan Implikasinya dalam Konteks Kognitif dan Etis

This study examines Quraish Shihab’s interpretation of the concept of rizq in Tafsir al-Misbah through the lens of Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory and Lev Vygotsky’s socio-cognitive theory. The academic problem addressed is how the concept of rizq, involving effort, prayer, and social interaction, can be understood from the perspective of cognitive development and social ethics. The study aims to fill the gap in tafsir analysis by incorporating psychological approaches, particularly in understanding how theological thoughts on rizq influence cognitive development and the formation of individual ethics. The research method used is textual analysis of Tafsir al-Misbah with theoretical approaches from Piaget and Vygotsky, exploring both cognitive and ethical aspects in the process of acquiring rizq. The novelty of this research lies in applying psychological developmental theories to tafsir analysis, a rarely undertaken approach in Quranic exegesis studies. The results indicate that Quraish Shihab's interpretation of rizq encompasses cognitive aspects that encourage logical and abstract thinking about effort and prayer, as well as ethical aspects that emphasize social responsibility and integrity in the pursuit of sustenance. This tafsir promotes the development of a proactive mindset and a strong ethical awareness through social interaction within the community.

Poetry and the Inapprehensible: A Genealogy

Abstract: Through close readings of William Langland, John Keats, Anne Carson, and Ben Lerner, this essay describes an enigmatic effect in and of English literature. Proposing Christian apophaticism as both source and analogue of literary styles, the essay introduces the concept of "apophatic effects," references to a literary realm not merely virtual but definitively inaccessible to perception. The imaginative leap that modern scholars value in English literature, epitomized by Keats's speaker's reflections on the urn, is a form of theological thinking that has forgotten where it came from. The essay touches on the relationship between literature and theology, the formation of the discipline of English, the definition of lyric, and Keats's influence on contemporary North American avant-garde poetry.

A kóser törvények márki recepciója

Mk 7, 17-23 and its context is a two-level narrative. On the first level, the text is a prophetic critique initially directed against the Pharisaic tradition of handwashing or, more generally, against the Pharisaic understanding of purity. On this level, Jesus opened the way for a departure from Judaism in no way. In other words, Jesus did not teach against the Torah's dietary laws. The second level of the text is Mark's interpretation. For him, Jesus' saying about the food being eliminated into the sewer no longer meant (or primarily did not mean) only that morality is prior to purity questions but also that everything is pure (i.e. for Gentile Christians). Mark, therefore, found in Jesus' saying the basis for the Gentile Christians' exemption from kosher laws. However, it is important to emphasise that one can discover the problem of identity behind the Marcan interpretation. By eating what the Jews did not, Christians clearly signal that they were now outside Judaism. Eating non-kosher food was an identity marker for (Gentile) Christians, emphasising their separation from Judaism. The drawing of boundaries between Judaism and Christianity was and remained an important issue in early Christianity. Whether they interpreted the kosher laws allegorically (Barnabas, Clement of Alexandria) or accepted their literal meaning (Justin), the common theological position was that the kosher laws (Lev 11), as interpreted by Judaism, were not valid for Christians. However, the practice was sometimes quite different from theological thinking: the extent to which the dietary laws applied to Gentile Christian communities was and remains a serious problem.

An Evolutionary Model of Early Theology When Moral and Religious Capacities Converge

Abstract This analysis summarizes conclusions on an evolutionary model for the origin of moral and religious capacities in the genus Homo. The authors’ published model (2020, Routledge) is now extended to the emergence of nascent theological thinking, augmenting the previous line of theory based on genomics, cognitive science, neuroscience, paleoneurology, cognitive archaeology, ethnography, and modern social science. This analysis concludes that findings support the earliest theological thinking in Homo sapiens, but not in an earlier species, Homo erectus, and clarifies why and when it likely began. Types of anatomy, behavior, neurology, and cognition are presented that support tendencies to frame a structure of religious principles and a set of supernatural figures that early humans would consider right, just, exemplary, and even sacred. Stages of emergent physical, behavioral, and cognitive features are presented in tables. While based on published research results in the sciences, the model is presented here with anticipation of future testing.

Analisis Sosiologi Hukum Islam Terhadap Aliran Sempalan: Ahmadiyah Qadiyani di Indonesia

This article aims to expose and examine the Ahmadiyah Qadiyani breakaway group in Indonesia through the lenses of sociology and Islamic law. Social contact and religious teachings, which are a rich source of Islamic theological thinking and include Ahmadiyah, are factors in the rise of Islamic sects. The presence of Qadiyani Ahmadiyya in Indonesia has become an interesting subject for sociological and Islamic legal studies. This research aims to analyze this phenomenon using a sociological and Islamic legal approach. Through a literature review, this study reveals the social dynamics that emerged with the existence of Ahmadiyah Qadiyani in Indonesian society, as well as the response of Islamic law to this sect. By considering the historical and social context, this analysis highlights Muslims' various pros and cons towards Ahmadiyah Qadiyani and its impact on relations between believers in Indonesia. This research also explores the implications of Islamic law for treating Ahmadiyah Qadiyani, including fatwas and legal regulations governing their existence. Thus, this study provides in-depth insight into the social and legal complexities associated with such splinter flows in Indonesia.

The Tradition of Russian Independent Theological Thought: A Complex Interplay between Believers, the Orthodox Church and the State in the Case of the Conflict in Ukraine

The construction of the Russian state has been closely linked with the development of the autocephalous Russian Orthodox Church. Russian identity is deeply rooted in Orthodoxy: Russian literature, music, architecture and philosophy all bear a strong religious mark. The birth of the Russian state is also tied to the concept of Moscow as the Third Rome. Over time, the head of the Russian state has been invested with this mission to preserve orthodoxy embodied in Russian statehood. The attempts of the state to politicise religious institutions or to use religious teachings for political gains are not a new phenomenon and are certainly apparent to Russian Orthodoxy, including in the context of the conflict in Ukraine. The disturbing absence of distance displayed by the Church authorities towards the use of force has isolated the Patriarch, but has also triggered discontent within the ranks of the clergy. Dissonant voices have spoken regardless of the pressure exerted to silence them. In the complex history of State—Church relations, the symphony between the temporal and spiritual powers has fluctuated from complete subjugation of the Church under the authority of the State to a more autonomous and independent Church. On the margins of this volatile relationship, Orthodox believers and movements have always emerged to challenge both. This article pays tribute to the long tradition of dissonant Russian Orthodox voices and attempts to demonstrate the continuity of this tradition in the context of the conflict in Ukraine.

Gender Equality in Batak Toba Society in the Lights of the Theological Thoughts of Ivone Gebara

Gender Equality in Batak Toba Society in the Lights of the Theological Thoughts of Ivone Gebara

세속적 권위에 대한 루터의 복종 사상 - 그 논거와 변화에 대한 고찰 -

This paper examines Luther's arguments for secular authority and its evolution within the historical and political context. Luther's arguments and attitudes towards secular authority have varied over time, leading to divergent evaluations of his political thought. He has been both criticized as a puppet of monarchs demanding blind obedience to unjust authority and hailed as a pioneer of modern political thought advocating active resistance. Therefore, this paper explores Luther's thought as a product shaped by social and temporal conditions, distinct from his biblical and theological thinking. It suggests interpreting Luther's evolving views of obedience as a strategic element for the success of the Protestant Reformation. The significance of this paper lies in several aspects. First, it refutes later negative assessments claiming Luther advocated blind obedience to unjust authority. Second, it elevates Luther's thought within political thought history as a foundation for modern political thought. Lastly, it provides clues for Christianity to adopt a flexible stance amidst domestic and international religious extremism and political polarization.

К вопросу об онтологическом единстве человеческой природы

The article analyses theological teaching about human nature expressed in the book “Took the Form of a Servant. To the Matter of Distortions of the Orthodox Understanding of Incarnation in Catholic and Orthodox Theological Thought of the end of XIX – beginning of XXI c.” published in 2020. The authors of the book question the ideas on Incarnation put forward by a number of XX c. theologians, combined under a concept of “incarnation theology”. They believe that teaching about ontological unity of human nature leads to a misinterpretation of Incarnation as the union of Christ with all humanity and implies a doctrine of apocatastasis, the salvation of everyone.The article puts the views of the authors of the book in the context of XX c. Russian theology. It argues that Metropolitan Anthony (Khrapovitskiy) adopted the idea of unity of humankind in the image of Divine Tri-unity from XIX c. “lay theology” and based his “moral theory of Atonement” on it. While not agreeing with the “moral theory”, a number of subsequent theologians, including St. Hilarion (Troitsky), Fr. George Florovsky and Vladimir Lossky, further developed his ideas of the unity of human nature. His teaching on human nature was criticised by St. Seraphim (Sobolev) and Archbishop Theophan (Bystrov). The article analyses their arguments, including, on one hand, the clear distinction between Divine and human natures, and on the other, especially for Archbishop Theophan, questioning the very unity of human nature.The article points out that the arguments in the book continue the arguments of Archbishop Theophan. It analyses the triple definition of human nature put forward by the authors of the book, partly based on the teaching of Thomas Aquinas and neoplatonics on universals. Whereas the article rejects some parts of this definition as poorly compatible with the Orthodox doctrine, the definition of human nature as composition common to all humans is acceptable; however, the authors’ objection against ontological unity of human nature means that they only mean unity as sameness and come close to John Philoponus’ doctrine of “partial substances”. The article demonstrates that misinterpretation of the notions of nature and hypostasis underlies the book authors’ criticism of St. Hilarion (Troitsky) and Vladimir Lossky on the issue of common nature.

Dynamics of Islamic Theological Thought Development in the Classical Period

The discourse surrounding the issue of classical Islamic theology that has developed so far is: First, that the emergence of schools in Islamic theology was predominantly due to political factors, even though if explored more deeply it turns out that differences in methods of thinking were the main factor; Second, there is an assumption that mutaqaddimin scholars understand theological verses in the Koran textually and do not understand them rationally, even though in reality many Muslim theologians interpret these theological verses rationally and freely. Based on these two issues, this article will reveal the dynamics of Islamic theological thinking of Islamic scholars in the classical period. The aim is to find the significance of the influence of the thinking activities of Muslim theologians during the classical period on the growth and development of Islamic theological thought and the birth of firqahs in Islamic theology during that period.

The Filioque Controversy: Analysing Theological Differences between the Western and Eastern Churches

The Filioque is a theological issue that has caused a divide in the Christian Churches, with the Western Churches (Latin Church) and Eastern Churches having different understandings of the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Western Churches believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, while the Eastern Churches believe that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father alone. The Western Churches have a strong emphasis on the one divine nature, while the Eastern Churches have a strong focus on the monarchy of the Father. This difference in theological perspective has created complications in the theological dialogue between the two regions. Despite these differences, the two theological traditions share the same faith perspective and can bear valuable fruit in theological thinking. The Filioque debate has been a longstanding issue in the Christian Churches, and despite efforts to regain unity, the problem remains unresolved.

Reformation of marital laws in Hungary: Early reception of Luther, Calvin and Beza before and until 1667

The main achievements of the huge research on the history of the Hungarian Protestantism show that at the beginning of the Protestantism the local reformers and preachers were interpreting Luther’s ideas, but from the 1550s Calvin’s doctrines became decisive. The reception of the great reformers’ ideas was far from being evident in the practice. It means pastors and preachers in Hungary did not cite directly from the written heritage of Luther (Pelikan Helmut 1955-1986), Calvin (Calvin 1863–1900) or Beza. They used to use the Bible itself. Nevertheless, many new and unknown problems raised, which deserved prompt and clear theological and moral advice. Most of the challenges were related to the burning, everyday questions of sexual sins and of family life. Therefore, it is not surprising that contemporary preachers were trying to commit everything to renew the public morality of people. The article intends to illuminate the evolution of the early Protestant marriage law system and theological thinking in Hungary after the temporary ’collapse’ of the Roman Catholic Church and its canon law in the 1550s. At the same time, it is raising the question, how did the ’great reformers’ influence the early Protestant marriage law system and theological thinking in Hungary.Intradisciplinary and/or interdisciplinary implications: This article is based on the field of systematic theology. The study intends to understand the development of Hungarian Reformed regulations of marriage in the 16th and 17th century from theological, judicial and historical perspectives.

The Struggle for Equality and Religious Tolerance: Women's Presence and Leadership in Protestant Circles in Sixteenth-Century Spain

Abstract: In 1559 two Protestant communities were discovered in Spain. A striking number of women—ordinary citizens, noblewomen, nuns—lived in those communities. Several played preeminent roles as teachers, preceptors, and feminist leaders who fought to defend their religious freedom and rights. This article aims to remove their names from oblivion, to describe the decisive role they played in Protestant circles in sixteenth-century Spain, and to analyze their philosophical and theological thinking.

Hindu‐Christian Comparative Theology in a Decolonial Key

AbstractThis article imagines how the discipline of comparative theology might sound in a decolonial key. Focusing on implications for Hindu‐Christian comparative theology, this article puts the sacramental theological approach of Indian Christian artist and theologian Jyoti Sahi into conversation with Michi Saagiig (Mississauga) Nishnaabeg theorist Leanne Betasamosake Simpson's notion of land as pedagogy. In contrast to the narrow epistemology that dominates the academy, this study highlights features of a land‐based alternative in which place, positionality, and relation are central to knowing; in which a subject is not first a thinker but a person in relation to a particular locale; and in which ecological and theological thinking encompass not only the sustainability of natural “resources,” but also the histories and exercises of power within a place.

Wszystkie nasze strachy – w stronę ekspresji tożsamości w kontekście bezreligijnego chrześcijaństwa

The article is an attempt to combine film and theological thoughts in relation to the film Wszystkie nasze strachy, in which the protagonist is modeled on the contemporary Polish visual artist Daniel Rycharski. His declarations, experience, and attitude confirm the validity of using the tropes related to the elements of the concept of Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s religionless Christianity for analyzing the film. The concept provides arguments that expand the possibility to consider the film and the protagonist’s creation in the perspective of the postmodern identity discourse with the contents that correspond with the phenomena and processes inscribed in the postsecular tendencies. The interpretations presented in the article take into account the context of non-heteronormativity and the manifestations of homophobia in a small rural community presented in the story, and also focus on the category of relationality, contemplativeness, identification, and movement, as well as the antinomy of religion and faith and Christocentrism.

Spiritual Intelligence and the Nous: Implications for Understanding the Relationship Between the Faith Traditions of the World

The modern concept of spiritual intelligence exhibits parallels with the ancient Greek philosophical understanding of the nous. This ancient understanding was used extensively in late antique and early medieval theological thinking and is still influential in some faith traditions. However, the implications of this understanding for exploring questions about religious pluralism have not been widely acknowledged. These implications arise from the way in which the noetic perception that arises from the full functioning of the nous is seen as essentially intuitive in nature, so that the relationship between this perception and religious doctrinal statements may be understood in terms of a radically apophatic understanding of religious language usage. Vladimir Lossky has proposed this stance as characteristic of Eastern patristic perspectives. In relation to this understanding, parallels with the perennialist tradition are evident and—even though this tradition in its classic form exhibits major flaws that need to be corrected—its pluralism becomes highly suggestive. This suggestiveness is reinforced by a number of other considerations, not least the recent “theological turn” in discussion of divine action within the science-theology dialogue, which permits an essentially “naturalistic” understanding of revelatory experiences. There may, nevertheless, be reasons for adopting “reciprocal inclusivism” rather than a full-blown pluralism of this kind.

African Theological Education: Retrospect and Prospect — An Anglophone Perspective

Christian theological thinking and vocation has a long and illustrious history on the African continent, dating back to prominent theologians in Roman North Africa and Egypt. To appraise the prospects of theological education in Africa against its complicated and fraught background, I will discuss two issues of primary importance: 1) the need for theological education (programs, research, and institutions) to deeply engage African realities and context; and 2) why overcoming the debilitating effects of captivity to the Western theological/intellectual tradition will be Africa’s greatest gift to the global church. These issues are primary because they will largely define or determine the prospects of African theological education for the next generation and beyond.

Some Theological Thoughts Volume 4

Some Theological Thoughts Volume 4

A Concise Assessment of Dutch Ecclesiastical and Theological Impacts on Jenő Sebestyén’s Thinking

Jenő Sebestyén, professor of systematic theology from Budapest, is often portrayed as the founding father of historical Calvinism in Hungary. The theological movement exhibits clearly a Dutch impact. He is often seen as a Kuyperian scholar who disseminated the famous Dutch theologian and churchman’s idea amongst Hungarian Reformed people. The current paper seeks to examine whether this statement is true in regard to his systematic theological thinking. By performing a statistical examination of the references found in his magnum opus, Református Dogmatika [Reformed Dogmatics], a surprising discovery was made. Herman Bavinck was cited more than Abraham Kuyper. Besides, it is also proved that other Dutch theologians, such as Jan Jacob van Oosterzee and Eskelhoff Gravemeyer, not to mention Louis Berkhof, also made an impact on the formation of idea about Reformed doctrine. Therefore, as far as his book on dogmatics is concerned, the research shows a far more nuanced picture of the impact made on him. The paper highlighted that his presentation as merely a Kuyperian scholar is a simplification. Keywords: Kuyper, Bavinck, historical Calvinism, Dutch theology Jenő Sebestyén’s Life and Work through Dutch Reformed Eyes