The Transtheoretical Model Variables Research Articles

Revisiting the Transtheoretical Model for Physical Activity: A Large-Scale Cross-Sectional Study on Japanese-Speaking Adults.

The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) has been the basis of health promotion programs, which are, for example, used to tailor behavioral interventions according to the stages of change. Empirical studies have shown that the TTM effectively describes the processes of behavioral adaptation to acquire healthier lifestyles; however, it has been argued that TTM-based interventions are not superior to non-TTM-based interventions for promoting physical activity (PA). Evidence has also highlighted some inconsistencies with theoretical assumptions, especially regarding how each process-of-change strategy emerges across the stages. Therefore, we investigated (a) how well the TTM describes the distributional characteristics of PA levels as well as other relevant variables (e.g., process of change, self-efficacy) across stages, and (b) how predictive the TTM variables are of PA levels within each stage. We analyzed data from 20,573 Japanese-speaking adults who completed online questionnaires on PA and TTM variables. The results replicated previous findings that stage membership is associated with PA, the process of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy, albeit with inconclusive evidence of temptations. Regression analyses revealed that some processes of change (self-reevaluation, reinforcement management, and self-liberation) were more predictive of PA in pre-active stages than in post-action stages; self-efficacy was predictive of PA only in the maintenance stage but not in the other stages. Overall, the data support the theoretical assumptions of the TTM, but the stage specificity of the active processes may not always be consistent with the theory.

Effects of a 12-Week Transtheoretical Model-Based Exercise Training Program in Chinese Postoperative Bariatric Patients: a Randomized Controlled Trial.

This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of the transtheoretical model (TTM)-based exercise training on TTM variables, exercise adherence, and physical function in patients in the early stages after bariatric surgery (BS). We conducted a single-blinded, prospective, randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate the effects of TTM-based exercise training on BS patients immediately after surgery. Participants (n = 120) were randomized into a TTM-based exercise training group (n = 60) and a control group (n = 60). Main outcomes included TTM variables (measured by exercise stages of change (ESCs), exercise self-efficacy (ESE), and decisional balance), exercise adherence, and physical function (determined by the 6-min walk distance (6MWD)). Secondary outcomes were physical activity, anthropometrics, and body composition. We performed all analyses in accordance with the intention-to-treat principle. Retention rates for the interventions were 91.7% for the intervention group and 90.0% for the control group. Compared with the control group, the 12-week TTM-based intervention significantly helped participants advance through ESCs, demonstrate higher ESE, perceive more benefits and fewer barriers to exercise, and show higher exercise adherence and better physical function afterward (all P < 0.05). However, we observed no statistically significant difference between the two groups in anthropometric parameters or body composition after intervention. The TTM-based exercise intervention had significant positive effects on the TTM variables, which could further help increase patients' exercise adherence and physical function immediately after BS. This study was retrospectively registered at the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (website: www.chictr.org.cn , registry number: ChiCTR2000039319).

Effect of an Ergonomics-Based Educational Intervention Based on Transtheoretical Model in Adopting Correct Body Posture Among Operating Room Nurses.

Background:One of the preventive strategies for chronic low back pain among operating room nurses is instructing proper body mechanics and postural behavior, for which the use of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) has been recommended.Methods:Eighty two nurses who were in the contemplation and preparation stages for adopting correct body posture were randomly selected (control group = 40, intervention group = 42). TTM variables and body posture were measured at baseline and again after 1 and 6 months after the intervention. A four-week ergonomics educational intervention based on TTM variables was designed and conducted for the nurses in the intervention group.Results:Following the intervention, a higher proportion of nurses in the intervention group moved into the action stage (p < 0.05). Mean scores of self-efficacy, pros, experimental processes and correct body posture were also significantly higher in the intervention group (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found in the cons and behavioral processes, except for self-liberation, between the two groups (p > 0.05) after the intervention.Conclusions:The TTM provides a suitable framework for developing stage-based ergonomics interventions for postural behavior.

Health behaviour models and patient preferences regarding nutrition and physical activity after breast or prostate cancer diagnosis

This study aimed to improve understanding of prostate and breast cancer survivors' physical activity and nutrition and the association of these behaviours with two models. The first model, the Commonsense Self-Regulation Model (CSM), addresses cognitive and emotional perceptions of illness whereas the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) focuses on stage of readiness to engage in a behaviour. Participants who had been diagnosed with either breast (n = 145) or prostate cancer (n = 92) completed measures of demographic and health information, illness representations, stage of change, self-efficacy and preferences regarding health behaviour interventions. Health behaviours in the past seven days were measured via the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and concordance with national dietary guidelines. As hypothesised, TTM variables (stage of change and self-efficacy) demonstrated independent associations with physical activity and nutrition in regression analyses. CSM variables were not independently associated with absolute levels of health behaviours but both TTM and CSM variables were independently associated with self-reported changes in physical activity and nutrition following prostate or breast cancer diagnosis. Many participants reported high interest in receiving lifestyle interventions, particularly soon after diagnosis. Results supported application of the TTM and CSM models for strengthening behaviour change intentions and actions in breast and prostate cancer survivors.

Randomized Trial of a Computer-Tailored Intervention for Patients with Depression

PURPOSE. Examine the efficacy of a computer-tailored intervention (CTI) based on the transtheoretical model (TTM) for reducing depression, an increasingly important component of health promotion programs. DESIGN. Pretest-posttest randomized trial. Setting . Participants were recruited and treated at home after being identified in two primary care clinics in Eastern Massachusetts and Chicago, Illinois. SUBJECTS. A total of 350 adults experiencing at least mild symptoms of depression but not involved in or planning to seek treatment for depression. INTERVENTION. A print manual and three CTI reports tailored to stage of change for using effective methods to prevent or reduce depression, other TTM variables, level of depression, and behavior. . Pre-post changes and reliable and clinically significant change on the Beck Depression scale II and pre-post changes on the 20-item Medical Outcomes Study Short Form survey-based measure of physical functioning at 9 months' follow-up. ANALYSIS. t-tests and χ(2) tests. Complete-case analysis and two intention-to-treat analyses-assumption of no change and multiple imputation (MI)-are reported. Exploratory analyses examined whether the effects of the intervention on depression were moderated by five subject characteristics: baseline level of depression, baseline level of physical functioning, baseline stage of change for preventing or managing depression, age, and education. RESULTS. Complete-case and intention-to-treat analyses showed that the intervention group experienced significantly greater improvements in depression (d = .220-.355); results for physical functioning were weaker (d = .150-.309) and did not reach statistical significance in the MI analysis. The effects of the intervention on reliable and clinically significant change in depression were largest among participants who were experiencing moderate depression (d = .363-.519) or severe depression (d = .603-.718) or who were in the precontemplation or contemplation stage (d = .573-.856) at baseline.

Maintaining exercise and healthful eating in older adults: The SENIOR project II: Study design and methodology

The Study of Exercise and Nutrition in Older Rhode Islanders (SENIOR) Project II is an intervention study to promote the maintenance of both exercise and healthful eating in older adults. It is the second phase of an earlier study, SENIOR Project I, that originally recruited 1277 community-dwelling older adults to participate in behavior-specific interventions designed to increase exercise and/or fruit and vegetable consumption. The general theoretical framework for this research is the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of Health Behavior Change. The current intervention occurs over a 48-month period, using a manual, newsletters, and phone coaching calls. Annual assessments collect standardized data on behavioral outcomes (exercise and diet), TTM variables (stage of change and self-efficacy), psychosocial variables (social support, depression, resilience, and life satisfaction), physical activity and functioning (SF-36, Up and Go, Senior Fitness Test, and disability assessment), cognitive functioning (Trail Making Test and Forward and Backward Digit Span), physical measures (height, weight, and waist circumference), and demographics. The SENIOR Project II is designed to answer the following question as its primary objective: (1) Does an individualized active-maintenance intervention with older adults maintain greater levels of healthful exercise and dietary behaviors for 4 years, compared to a control condition? In addition, there are two secondary objectives: (2) What are the psychosocial factors associated with the maintenance of health-promoting behaviors in the very old? (3) What are the effects of the maintenance of health-promoting behaviors on reported health outcomes, psychosocial measures, anthropometrics, and cognitive status?

Computer-Mediated Intervention Tailored on Transtheoretical Model Stages and Processes of Change Increases Fruit and Vegetable Consumption among Urban African-American Adolescents

To examine the efficacy of an intervention based on the transtheoretical model (TTM) for increasing fruit and vegetable consumption among economically disadvantaged African-American adolescents. Pretest-posttest quasi-experimental study. Youth services agencies located in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Agencies were assigned to computer intervention (CIN) and nonintervention control study arms. A total of 507 African-American adolescents ages 11 to 14 years. Youths in the CIN arm completed four 30-minute intervention sessions tailored on TTM stages and processes of change. Self-reported fruit and vegetable consumption and stages, pros, cons, and self-efficacy for consumption. Intervention effects were examined with analysis of covariance models that were controlled for demographic variables and baseline measures of each outcome. Chi-square analyses were used to examine between-arm differences in youths' stage progressions. After adjustment by covariates, pros (p < .025) and fruit and vegetable consumption (p < .001) varied significantly with study arm. Youths in the CIN arm had higher pro scores and fruit and vegetable consumption than controls. More youths in the CIN arm than in the control arm progressed to later stages and maintained recommended intake levels (p < .05). A TTM-based intervention can increase fruit and vegetable intake and effect positive changes in TTM variables related to intake among economically disadvantaged African-American adolescents.

Psychological and behavioral mechanisms influencing the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in cancer patients

BackgroundThis study explored the psychological and behavioral mechanisms of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use in Japanese cancer patients using two applied behavioral models, the transtheoretical model (TTM), and theory of planned behavior (TPB). Patients and methodsQuestionnaires were distributed to 1100 patients at three cancer treatment facilities in Japan and data on 521 cancer patients were used in the final analysis. The questionnaire included items based on TTM and TPB variables, as well as three psychological batteries. ResultsAccording to the TTM, 88 patients (17%) were in precontemplation, 226 (43%) in contemplation, 33 (6%) in preparation, 71 (14%) in action, and 103 (20%) in maintenance. The model derived from structural equation modeling revealed that the stage of CAM use was significantly affected by the pros, cons, expectation from family, norms of medical staff, use of chemotherapy, period from diagnosis, and place of treatment. The primary factor for the stage of CAM use was the expectation from family. ConclusionsThe findings revealed the existence of a number of psychologically induced potential CAM users, and psychological variables including positive attitude for CAM use and perceived family expectation greatly influence CAM use in cancer patients.

Colorectal Cancer Screening among Low-Income African Americans in East Harlem: A Theoretical Approach to Understanding Barriers and Promoters to Screening

African Americans (AAs) have the highest incidence rates of colorectal cancer (CRC) among all races in the US. These disparities may be attributed to lower participation in CRC prevention and control activities [e.g., flexible sigmoidoscopy (FS), fecal occult blood testing (FOBT)]. This is a current issue in East Harlem where less than half the residents in this area participate in CRC screening and mortality rates due to CRC are higher than the national average. We examined correlates of FS and FOBT screening among AAs based on the transtheoretical model (TTM) of behavior change. One hundred and eleven AA men and women, 50 years and older (51-92), low-income, and at average risk for CRC were recruited at an ambulatory care center in East Harlem. Assessments focused on sociodemographic, medical, psychosocial and TTM variables. The first logistic regression model showed that higher levels of education (p < 0.05), greater knowledge of FS (p < 0.05), and greater endorsements of Thinking Beyond Oneself (p < 0.05) were associated with adherence to FS screening guidelines. The second model showed that only greater knowledge of FOBT (p < 0.05) and receiving a physician's recommendation (p < 0.01) were significant correlates of adherence to FOBT screening guidelines. This study supported the application of components of the TTM for FS and FOBT screening among low-income AAs receiving care in an urban medical center and illustrated the need for interventions targeting both patients and their providers.

Mediators of a Randomized Controlled Physical Activity Intervention for Breast Cancer Survivors

Physical activity (PA) interventions diminish some of the physical and psychosocial sequelae of breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. To increase intervention efficacy and portability, it is necessary to determine the factors mediating intervention effects on physical and psychosocial outcomes. This study presents mediator analyses from a randomized controlled trial of a home-based PA intervention (focused primarily on brisk walking) for breast cancer survivors. Eighty-six survivors were randomized to PA or contact control groups (mean age = 53.42 years, SD = 9.08 and 52.86 years, SD = 10.38 respectively; mean time since diagnosis &lt; 2 years). The PA intervention was based on the transtheoretical model (TTM). Kraemerʼs approach was used to test hypothesized mediators. TTM variables did not mediate intervention effects on PA. Data indicate that increases in moderate-intensity PA and improved fitness may mediate intervention effects on vigor (β = .21; p = .01) and fatigue (β = .24; p = .05) and suggest the value of future research on these potential mediators.

Exercise Behavior among New Zealand Adolescents: A Test of the Transtheoretical Model

The purpose of this study was to examine whether variables in the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) acted more as predictors than as consequences of exercise behavior (stage of change). Students from 13 New Zealand high schools (N = 1,434) completed questionnaires corresponding to variables in the TTM (i.e., stage of exercise change, processes of change, self-efficacy, and decisional balance) at two time periods separated by 6 months. Reciprocal relationships were found between exercise behavior and the TTM variables. The TTM might be a useful framework for understanding longitudinal exercise behavior in the adolescent population.

MOVING BEYOND THE TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL

MOVING BEYOND THE TRANSTHEORETICAL MODEL

Application of the Transtheoretical Model to Fruit and Vegetable Consumption among Economically Disadvantaged African-American Adolescents: Preliminary Findings

To examine the application of the transtheoretical model (TTM) to fruit and vegetable consumption among economically disadvantaged African-American adolescents. Scales for measuring decisional balance, situational self-efficacy, and processes of change for fruit and vegetable consumption were developed and pretested with 57 economically disadvantaged African-American adolescents. The scales and measures for assessing stages of change, demographic variables, and fruit and vegetable consumption were administered to a separate sample of 262 participants. t-tests for independent samples and analysis of variance were used to examine differences in TTM variables and fruit and vegetable consumption across stages of change. Two-factor solutions for decisional balance and processes of change and a three-factor solution for situational self-efficacy provided the best fit to the data. Alpha coefficients of reliability for the scales ranged from .77 (experiential change processes) to .91 (pros). Participants in action-maintenance stages evidenced higher pros, self-efficacy, and fruit and vegetable consumption and significantly lower cons than did participants in precontemplation and contemplation-preparation stages. Also, participants in action-maintenance stages used processes of change more frequently than did those in precontemplation-contemplation-preparation stages. The use of experiential and behavioral processes within these stages did not differ significantly, as posited. Observed differences in TTM variables and fruit and vegetable consumption by stage of change in this sample of economically disadvantaged African-American adolescents were consistent with theory and previous applications of the model to fruit and vegetable consumption in adults. With replication studies, the TTM may be appropriate for designing interventions to increase fruit and vegetable consumption among this population.

Stages of change in adolescents: an examination of self-efficacy, decisional balance, and reasons for relapse

Purpose The purpose of this study was to test selected constructs of the transtheoretical model (TTM) of behavior change in relation to exercise behavior with an adolescent sample. A further purpose was to examine reasons why adolescents stop physical activity and to relate these to stages of exercise change. Methods Participants were 15 to 17 year old students at a private high school ( N = 327). Participants completed a questionnaire consisting of an exercise measure, measures of the TTM variables, and an open-ended question that asked if they used to exercise in the past but currently did not, why they had stopped. The TTM data were analyzed using ANOVA F-tests with post-hoc Scheffe tests. To evaluate the ability of the TTM variables to discriminate between stages of exercise behavior, standard discriminant function analyses were performed. Open-ended answers to the relapse question were themed according to a model which categorizes barriers preventing youth’s participation in recreational activities as infrastructural, superstructural, and procedural. The relationship of perceived barriers to stage of behavior change was assessed using cross-tabulation and chi-square analyses. Results Moderate support for the TTM constructs were found, with the strongest discriminator between stages being strenuous exercise, and self-efficacy being the most supported construct. Infrastructural, superstructural, and procedural barriers were all evident. Conclusion Over 30% of previously active adolescents in this study reported barriers precluding extracurricular physical activity. Interventions should target the most often cited reasons for relapse: time and limits relating to the nature of the adolescent self.

Patient decision making: Strategies for diabetes diet adherence intervention

Background Patient self-care is critical in controlling diabetes and its complications. Lack of diet adherence is a particular challenge to effective diabetes intervention. The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of Change, decision-making theory, and self-efficacy have contributed to successful tailoring of interventions in many target behaviors. Objective The purpose of this study was to develop a diagnostic tool, including TTM measures for the stages of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy, that pharmacists involved in diabetes intervention can use for patients resistant to a diet regimen. Methods A questionnaire was developed through a literature review, interviews with diabetic patients, an expert panel input, and pretesting. Cross-sectional implementation of the questionnaire among a convenience sample of 193 type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients took place at 4 patient care sites throughout the southeastern United States. Validated measures were used to collect respondent self-report for the TTM variables and for demographic and diabetes history variables. Social desirability was also assessed. Results Relationships among TTM measures for diet adherence generally replicated those established for other target behaviors. Salient items were identified as potential facilitators (decisional balance pros) or barriers (decisional balance cons and self-efficacy tempting situations) to change. Social desirability exhibited a statistically significant relationship with patient report of diet adherence, with statistically significant differences in mean social desirability across race categories. Conclusions The TTM measures for the stages of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy are useful for making decisions on individually tailored interventions for diet adherence, with caution asserted about the potential of diabetes patients to self-report the target behavior in a socially desirable manner. Future research directions, implications, and limitations of the findings are also presented.

Stage of Change Transitions and Processes of Change, Decisional Balance, and Self-Efficacy in Smokers: A Transtheoretical Model Validation Using Longitudinal Data.

Interactions were examined between stage of change transitions and intraindividual increases or decreases in the processes of change, pros and cons of smoking, and situational temptations longitudinally. A total of 786 ever smokers was assessed 2 times, 6 months apart, with respect to the transtheoretical model (TTM) constructs. Two significant discriminant functions within initial precontemplators and 1 significant function within initial contemplators were found. Ten out of 15 TTM variables contributed to at least 1 function. The functions mainly distinguished between preabstinence (precontemplation, contemplation, or preparation) and abstinence (action or maintenance) stages of change, that is, between current and former smokers. This is one of the few studies providing a longitudinal validation of the postulates of the TTM.

Predictive value of aspects of the Transtheoretical Model on smoking cessation in a community-based, large-group cognitive behavioral program

Objective: To evaluate the predictive value of aspects of the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) of behavior change as applied to smoking cessation in a large-group, community-based cognitive–behavioral intervention. Research approach: Cognitive–behavioral intervention followed by 3-month assessment of smoking status. Setting: Regional Outpatient Cancer Centre. Study participants: A total of 2069 participants in smoking cessation clinics held between 1992 and 1999. Intervention: Eight 90-min sessions over 4 months utilizing education, self-monitoring, a group quit date, and behaviour modification techniques. Main outcome measures: Cessation rates at 3 months postquit date. Differences between successful and unsuccessful participants on the baseline TTM variables of: stages of change, processes of change, decisional balance and situational temptations, as well as of precessation demographic, smoking history, and smoking behavior variables. Results: Nonsmokers at 3 months endorsed using more of only one of the processes of change (Reinforcement Management) more than smokers prior to starting the program. They also endorsed more Cons of Smoking and had a more negative Decisional Balance score. When the variables of tobacco tolerance on the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND), marital status, association with the Cancer Centre, and amount of vigorous exercise were first entered in a logistic regression model, Reinforcement Management and Cons of Smoking continued to be predictive of smoking cessation success, but again none of the other TTM variables added explanatory power. Conclusions: TTM variables measured prior to program attendance added little predictive value for cessation outcome beyond that explained by demographic and smoking history variables. Future studies may benefit from reassessing the TTM variables at the quit date and the 3-month assessment of smoking status to evaluate how the program impacted these variables.

Testing stage effects in an ethnically diverse sample

The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) has been extensively validated in representative samples of adult smokers. Stage effects, i.e., the patterned relationships between Stage of Change (SOC) and other TTM variables, have been reported in a variety of samples. This study describes reliability data for the TTM variables and tests the stage effects with an ethnically diverse sample of 296 parents with young children. On the basis of theory and previous empirical evidence from a general population, it is possible to make quantitative predications about the magnitude of the expected effect sizes for the Decisional Balance, Situational Temptations, and Processes of Change subscales. For each variable, both a test of significance and a comparison with the expected effect sizes is reported. Results indicated significant stage differences for 8 of the 11 TTM subscales, and all quantitative predictions were confirmed. This study supports the use of TTM measures in an ethnically diverse sample.

Testing the transtheoretical model for smoking change: Victorian data

The transtheoretical model (TTM) is an important theory of behaviour change, and one that has been applied extensively to smoking cessation. This paper explores the internal validity of the model by exploring relationships between key TTM variables across four of its proposed stages of change. It utilises a community sample of 304 smokers and recent quitters.Respondents were administered the short-form of the TTM inventory, which included measures of stage of change, pros and cons of smoking, 3 temptation subscales, and the 10 processes of change scales.The results generally replicate earlier findings and extend them by demonstrating predicted declines in the processes of consciousness raising and self re-evaluation from preparation to action. The results indicate problems with (at least) the measurement of social liberation, dramatic relief, and helping relationships, and validate changes to item wording introduced for consciousness raising and reinforcement management. It is concluded that, with some minor item-wording changes, most TTM constructs behave as originally conceived or prescribed by the model in the Australian context and, where they do not, similar problems have been identified in other countries.