Test Of Memory And Learning Research Articles

Improvement of Memory and Motivation in Language Learning in Primary Education through the Interactive Digital Whiteboard (IDW): The Future in a Post-Pandemic Period

This paper presents an analysis of the use of an interactive digital whiteboard (IDW) and a computer application called Action Manager (AM), with a sample of 158 sixth-grade students in primary education. Subsequently, a study was carried out with the main goal of testing the didactic functioning of AM and examining the validity of this application, in terms of motivation and the retention of both short and long-term memory when teaching foreign languages in primary education. In order to fulfil these objectives, we performed a positivist exploratory study based on a quantitative methodology combining qualitative aspects (qualitative evaluation) and quantitative aspects (questionnaires) as well as a descriptive method with a survey design. The data collection was performed using instruments, specifically the Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Orientation Scale, to ascertain the motivational impressions of the students and two memory tests, the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) and the Children’s Memory Scale (CMS). Forty-five days later, the two memory tests were repeated to compare the results with the previous ones. After this experience, the results allowed us to conclude that the students demonstrated optimal memorization from a conceptual point of view, in addition to having improved their motivational impressions.

Auditory attention in autism spectrum disorder: An exploration of volumetric magnetic resonance imaging findings

ABSTRACTStudies have shown that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) tend to perform significantly below typically developing individuals on standardized measures of attention, even when controlling for IQ. The current study sought to examine within ASD whether anatomical correlates of attention performance differed between those with average to above-average IQ (AIQ group) and those with low-average to borderline ability (LIQ group) as well as in comparison to typically developing controls (TDC). Using automated volumetric analyses, we examined regional volume of classic attention areas including the superior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, and precuneus in ASD AIQ (n = 38) and LIQ (n = 18) individuals along with 30 TDC. Auditory attention performance was assessed using subtests of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) compared among the groups and then correlated with regional brain volumes. Analyses revealed group differences in attention. The three groups did not differ significantly on any auditory attention-related brain volumes; however, trends toward significant size–attention function interactions were observed. Negative correlations were found between the volume of the precuneus and auditory attention performance for the AIQ ASD group, indicating larger volume related to poorer performance. Implications for general attention functioning and dysfunctional neural connectivity in ASD are discussed.

Study of Cognitive Function in Children Treated with Propranolol for Infantile Hemangioma

Oral propranolol is considered the first choice for the treatment of infantile hemangiomas (IHs). There is a concern that administering propranolol in newborns and infants could induce adverse effects in learning and memory processes in the long term. The purpose of this study was to assess cognitive and memory functions in children who had been treated with propranolol for IH during their infancy. A total of 23 children between 5 and 7.5years of age who had been treated with oral propranolol for IH during infancy were tested for cognitive functions with the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Fourth Edition (WPPSI-IV) test and for memory functions with the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Comparison of our sample with a normal distribution by a Shapiro-Wilk W test showed no significant difference for any of the composite scores in the WPPSI-IV and TOMAL tests except for positive asymmetry and concentration of scores around average (p = 0.01) in the WPPSI-IV composite score (mean intelligence), due to one atypically high score. The distribution of scores for intelligence and memory scales in our study population was similar to that in the reference general population. These results fail to support any significant disturbance in intelligence and memory development in children treated during infancy with propranolol for IH.

Mesial temporal lobe and memory function in autism spectrum disorder: An exploration of volumetric findings

Studies have shown that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) tend to perform significantly below typical developing individuals on standardized measures of memory, even when not significantly different on measures of IQ. The current study sought to examine within ASD whether anatomical correlates of memory performance differed between those with average-to-above-average IQ (AIQ group) and those with low-average to borderline ability (LIQ group) as well as in relations to typically developing comparisons (TDC). Using automated volumetric analyses, we examined regional volume of classic memory areas including the hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala in an all-male sample AIQ (n = 38) and LIQ (n = 18) individuals with ASD along with 30 typically developing comparisons (TDC). Memory performance was assessed using the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) compared among the groups and then correlated with regional brain volumes. Analyses revealed group differences on almost all facets of memory and learning as assessed by the various subtests of the TOMAL. The three groups did not differ on any region of interest (ROI) memory-related brain volumes. However, significant size–memory function interactions were observed. Negative correlations were found between the volume of the amygdala and composite, verbal, and delayed memory indices for the LIQ ASD group, indicating larger volume related to poorer performance. Implications for general memory functioning and dysfunctional neural connectivity in ASD are discussed.

Alteraciones de la memoria en el Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje: una perspectiva neuropsicológica

The acquisition of learning and memory abilities is closely linked to correct language development, with a qualitative change in these abilities when language skills are well developed. One way of researching this is to study mnesic performance in people with language disorders. However, studies of memory in language disorders are scarce. To help fill this gap, we studied learning and memory, both verbal and visuospatial, in a sample of children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI). The sample was composed of 31SLI children and 19control children, all aged between 6 and 11years. The tests used were the following: TAVECI, the Digits Subtest from WISC-IV, the spatial localization subtest from the WMS-III, the history subtest from the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) and the Rey Complex Figure Test. The results showed deficits in learning and memory in SLI children. These results showed that SLI children had cognitive problems that went beyond linguistics issues, and indicated the need to include memory and learning assessment in SLI characterization.

Estudio comparativo del perfil cognitivo de niños en edad escolar con tumores cerebrales infratemporales y supratentoriales que finalizaron el tratamiento médico. Impacto en el funcionamiento escolar y social de la calidad de vida relacionada con salud

Introduction: Due to scientific advances, there is a growing number of pediatric patients surviving cancer. In general, for children who suffer from central nervous system tumors, this survival is associated with secondary adverse effects, such as cognitive deficits. Objetive: To assess cognitive functions and quality of life in children with infratentorial and supratentorial brain tumors. Methods: An analytical observational and prospective study was conducted. The total sample consisted of 51 subjects. The following measurement instruments were used: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC IV), Cognitive Assessment System (CAS), Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL), Graffar Scale; and Peds Quality of Life 4.0 Results: The comparison of the results did not show significant differences between infratentorial and supratentorial tumor location. All patients that were evaluated in the post-cancer-treatment period reveled a similar significant impairment in all the areas studied compared with the level expected in the general population. The most severely affected cognitive functions were processing speed and attention span, mainly on the planning tasks. The findings also show that quality of life at school is severely affected in these children. Conclusions: This is a preliminary study whose results may define a general trend of neurocognitive status, analyzing its impact on quality of life of the study population an posing useful questions for future research.

Memory functioning in children and adolescents with autism.

Memory functioning in children and adolescents ages 5-19 with autism (n = 50) and typically developing controls (n = 36) was assessed using a clinical assessment battery, the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Participant groups were statistically comparable in age, nonverbal IQ, handedness, and head circumference, and were administered the TOMAL. Test performance on the TOMAL demonstrated broad differences in memory functioning in the autism group, across multiple task formats, including verbal and nonverbal, immediate and delayed, attention and concentration, sequential recall, free recall, associative recall, and multiple-trial learning memory. All index and nearly all subtest differences remained significant even after comparing a subset of the autism group (n = 36) and controls that were matched for verbal IQ (p > .05). However, retention of previously remembered information after a delay was similar in autism and controls. These findings indicate that performance on measures of episodic memory is broadly reduced in autism, and support the conclusion that information encoding and organization, possibly due to inefficient cognitive processing strategies, rather than storage and retrieval, are the primary factors that limit memory performance in autism.

Facial memory deficits in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

Prenatal exposure to alcohol may lead to a range of neurobehavioral effects, including impaired learning and memory. Although children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) exhibit both verbal and nonverbal memory impairments, their memory for faces has not been as thoroughly investigated and the extent literature provides inconsistent results. The aim of the current study was to determine whether difficulties in face memory exist in children with FASD and whether the difficulties are mediated by task demands. To address this, we used two measures of immediate and delayed facial recognition memory, the Children's Memory Scale (CMS) and Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Compared to typically developing controls, children with FASD showed memory deficits on all tests and were more likely to perform in a clinically significant range. As well, children performed more poorly on the CMS compared to TOMAL, a finding consistent with the greater difficulty of the CMS task. Our results are consistent with our hypothesis that children with FASD show impairment in facial memory, particularly on demanding memory tasks.

Differential Sensitivity of TOMAL Subtests and Index Scores to Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury

The objective of the present study was to examine and compare the subtest, index, and factor scores of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL), using receiver-operating characteristic curves, to investigate their sensitivity and specificity to traumatic brain injury (TBI) in children and adolescents. One hundred and fifty participants who had sustained TBI were compared to 150 controls matched on age and gender from the TOMAL's standardization sample. Results indicated that the greatest area under the curve (AUC) was for the Object Recall (OR) subtest score, the Composite Memory Index (CMI), and the attention factor score. The optimal CMI cutoff score for a TBI diagnosis was 83. When factor scores were compared, the attention factor and two verbal factors had significantly larger AUCs than the three nonverbal factors. These findings suggest that the OR subtest and CMI are most sensitive to TBI, and that when components were broken into factors with no overlapping subtests, attention and verbal memory were optimal for classifying TBI.

Memory and Attention Profiles in Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes heterogeneous patterns of neurocognitive deficits. In an attempt to identify homogenous subgroups within this heterogeneity, cluster analysis was used to examine memory and attention abilities as measured by the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) in 300 children, 150 with TBI and 150 matched nonbrain injured controls (standardization sample [SS]). Significant differences were present between the TBI and the SS groups on all TOMAL subscale and index scores, with the TBI groups performing approximately 1.3 SD below the SS. Factor analysis of the TOMAL indicated six factors that assessed various aspects of verbal and nonverbal learning and memory, as well as attention/concentration. Cluster analyses of TOMAL factor scores indicated that a four-cluster solution was optimal for the SS group, and a five-cluster solution for the TBI group. For the TBI clusters, differences were present for clinical, achievement, neurocognitive, and behavioral variables, providing some support for the validity of the cluster solution. These findings suggest that TBI results in unique patterns of neurocognitive impairment that are not accounted for by individual differences in test performance commonly observed in normal populations. Additionally, neurocognitive profiles identified using cluster analysis may prove useful for identifying homogeneous subgroups of children with TBI that are differentiated by a number of important clinical, cognitive, and behavioral variables associated with treatment and outcomes.

Sensitivity of the Test of Memory and Learning to Attention and Memory Deficits in Children with ADHD

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) exhibit a number of cognitive deficits. The current study compared patterns of attention, learning, and memory impairment on the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) between 80 children with ADHD and 80 normal comparisons who were matched for age and gender. Results demonstrated that children with ADHD performed significantly worse than matched controls on the Attention/Concentration Index and the Sequential Recall Index. ROC analysis indicated that these two indexes had good classification accuracy with AUCs of.76 and.77 respectively. There were also group differences on the other index scores except the Associative Recall Index. Factor analysis of the ADHD sample extracted five factors, including an Attention factor that significantly correlated with performance on nonverbal memory tasks. Significant correlations between the TOMAL Index scores and tests of intelligence and visuomotor integration supported the convergent and discriminant validity of the test. These results provide support for the criterion validity of the TOMAL in assessing neurocognitive deficits in children with ADHD.

Evaluación neuropsicológica de la memoria en el trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad: papel de las funciones ejecutivas

There is an important agreement on the consideration of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as a condition characterized by neurodevelopmental dysfunction of fronto-striatal dopaminergic and noradrenergic circuits with resultant executive deficits in cognitive functioning. To assess the existence of memory deficits in children with ADHD associated with a poor performance executive. We assess 14 children diagnosed with ADHD combined type and 14 controls matched on intellectual coefficient, age and level of schooling, in a neuropsychological evaluation protocol designed to assess executive functions and memory skills using Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Memory for Stories Test -Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL)-, Complex Figure Text, Visual Selective Reminding Test (TOMAL), Tower of Hanoi, Memory Phrases Test (Siegel and Ryan), Digit Span (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised) and Tapping Test (Wechsler Memory Scale III). The ADHD group showed deficits in the learning and free recall of verbal material, in procedural and working memory. No group differences were observed in the visual memory tasks. The results are analyzed in terms of difficulty in coding strategies, storage and search of information previously stored in the group with ADHD, at least for the kind of verbal information. These difficulties are associated with deficits in executive functioning.

Does Maternal Prenatal Stress Adversely Affect the Child’s Learning and Memory at Age Six?

Prenatal maternal stress has been shown to affect postnatal development in animals and humans. In animals, the morphology and function of the offspring's hippocampus is negatively affected by prenatal maternal stress. The present study prospectively investigated the influence of prenatal maternal stress on learning and memory of 112 children (50 boys, 62 girls, Age: M=6.7 years, SD=8.4 months), with the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Maternal stress levels were determined three times during pregnancy by self-report questionnaires. Furthermore, maternal saliva cortisol samples were used as a measure of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning. Results of hierarchical multivariate regression analyses showed that maternal life events measured during the first part of pregnancy were negatively associated with the child's attention/concentration index, while controlling for overall IQ, gender, and postnatal stress. No associations were found between prenatal maternal cortisol and the offspring's learning and memory.

Criterion-Related Validity of Measuring Sight-Word Acquisition with Curriculum-Based Assessment

Curriculum-Based Assessment for Instructional Design (CBA-ID) provides data used to ensure an appropriately challenging learning task. One aspect of appropriate challenge measured by CBA-ID, called the acquisition rate (AR), involves the amount of new information a student could acquire and retain during initial learning. Previous research suggested adequate reliability, consistency with theory, expected developmental changes, and instructional utility, but the correlation between CBA-ID data and criterion variables has not been examined. Criterion-related validity coefficients could be an important source of data with which validity of CBA-ID data can be evaluated. The current study examined the criterion-related validity of assessing ARs with CBA-ID by correlating acquisition rates with scores from the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL) for 25 students in third and fourth grade. Corrected coefficients were equal to or exceeded .70 for two of the three TOMAL indices and equaled .59 for the third. Thus, these data supported the criterion-related validity of measuring ARs with CBA-ID.

Memory and Learning in Children with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome: Evidence for Ventral and Dorsal Stream Disruption?

This study examined memory functioning in children and adolescents with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (DS; velocardiofacial syndrome). An overall verbal better than nonverbal memory pattern was evident on the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL), with children with 22q11.2 DS performing significantly below their siblings and children with low average IQ but similar to children with autism on facial memory. Children with 22q11 DS also performed significantly below their siblings on tests of verbal working memory. Children with autism performed significantly poorer than the siblings of children with 22q11.2 DS only on their recall of stories. Delayed recall was significantly poorer in children with 22q11.2 DS and children with autism, compared to sibling controls. Although there were no significant group differences on tests of multiple trial verbal or visual learning, a relative weakness was noted with multiple trial visual learning in children with 22q11.2 DS and their siblings, suggesting that an alternative or interactive factor other than the deletion may account for the relatively better verbal compared to nonverbal memory abilities. Deficits in facial memory in children with both 22q11.2 DS and autism suggest disruptions in ventral temporal pathways such as between fusiform gyrus and parahippocampal/hippocampal regions whereas deficits in verbal working memory in children with 22q11.2 DS implicates dorsolateral prefrontal regions, both intimating aberrant white matter pathways.

Latent factor structure of the Test of Memory and Learning in a pediatric traumatic brain injured sample: Support for a general memory construct

The Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL; Reynolds, C. R., & Bigler, E. D. (1994a). Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed; Reynolds, C. R., & Bigler, E. D. (1994b). Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL): Examiner's manual. Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed) was published to ameliorate the paucity of developmentally appropriate instruments for the assessment of memory in children and adolescents. No studies have confirmed the latent factor structure of the TOMAL. Two structural models were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis using the TOMAL performances of 140 subjects, age 5–19, with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Model 1 was a four-factor model with a large “Complex Memory” factor and three smaller factors. Model 2 was a two-factor model with Verbal and Nonverbal Memory factors, both of which loaded on a second-order “General” memory factor. Results indicated that the model with a higher order structure demonstrated better fit than the four-factor model. Further analysis suggested that the TOMAL factor structure is characterized by a large Complex Memory and smaller, Sustained Attention factor. The study provides tentative support for a “general memory” construct.

Gender differences in memory test performance among children and adolescents

Gender differences among children and adolescents were examined on 14 separate measures of short-term memory. A nationally stratified sample of 1,279 children and adolescents, 637 males and 642 females, ranging in age between 5 and 19 years, were assessed on the 14 subtests of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Factor structure of the TOMAL was determined to be invariant as a function of gender. Using age-corrected deviation scaled scores calculated at 1-year intervals, results of a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed only two significant differences in absolute scores across gender on the 14 memory subtests. A profile of normal variations in patterns of memory test performance across gender revealing relative strengths for females on verbal tasks and males on spatial tasks is presented for clinical use and future normative comparisons.

Memory functioning in children with traumatic brain injuries: a TOMAL validity study

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads the causes of death and disability among children and adolescents. Despite the prevalence of TBI among children, few studies have examined memory in children. The purpose of this study was to compare memory functioning, as measured by the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL), of children with and without TBI and with moderate and severe TBI to determine if differences existed. Of the 140 participants, 70 had sustained a head trauma and 70 served as controls. The results indicated that, when the TBI and control group were compared, significant differences were found on all of the TOMAL indexes. With the exception of the verbal delayed recall items, significant differences were demonstrated on all the TOMAL subtests. No differences were identified when moderate and severe groups were compared. These findings further the understanding of memory following pediatric TBI, as well as have implications for interventions with this population.

Gender differences in memory test performance among children and adolescents

Gender differences among children and adolescents were examined on 14 separate measures of short-term memory. A nationally stratified sample of 1,279 children and adolescents, 637 males and 642 females, ranging in age between 5 and 19 years, were assessed on the 14 subtests of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). Factor structure of the TOMAL was determined to be invariant as a function of gender. Using age-corrected deviation scaled scores calculated at 1-year intervals, results of a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed only two significant differences in absolute scores across gender on the 14 memory subtests. A profile of normal variations in patterns of memory test performance across gender revealing relative strengths for females on verbal tasks and males on spatial tasks is presented for clinical use and future normative comparisons.

Reading Disability Subtypes and the Test of Memory and Learning

For Study 1, 24 readers with dysphonetic dyslexia and 21 with dyseidetic dyslexia, classified by Boder criteria, were compared to 90 control group participants (45 matched for age and 45 for reading level) on the Composite Memory Index (CMI) score from the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL). CMI scores were significantly lower for children with dyslexia (p < .0001). Plotting average subtest score profiles for all reader groups revealed auditory sequential memory impairments for both types of readers with dyslexia, and multiple strengths for good readers. Dysphonetic and dyseidetic dyslexia profiles were nearly identical. For Study 2, average linkage cluster analysis was performed using principal components derived from subtests of the TOMAL. Homogeneous clusters of normal readers and children with reading disabilities emerged. Results indicated that qualitatively distinct subtypes of readers with dyslexia exist.