Tests Of General Cognitive Ability Research Articles

Written language achievement in children and adolescents with neurofibromatosis type 1 and Plexiform Neurofibromas

ABSTRACT Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is associated with below average writing achievement. However, little is known about specific aspects of written language impacted by NF1, changes in writing over time, and associations between cognitive aspects of the NF1 phenotype and writing. At three timepoints over six years, children with NF1 and plexiform neurofibromas (PNs) completed Woodcock-Johnson tests of writing mechanics (Spelling, Punctuation & Capitalization, handwriting), written expression of ideas (Writing Samples), writing speed (Writing Fluency), and tests of general cognitive ability, executive function, memory, and attention. Children (N = 76, mean age = 12.8 ± 3.4 years) completed at least one baseline writing subtest. Overall writing scores were in the Average range (M = 93.4, SD = 17.4), but lower than population norms (p = 0.002). Scores were highest on Writing Samples (M = 95.2, SD = 17.3), and lowest for Punctuation & Capitalization (M = 87.9, SD = 18.8, p = 0.034). Writing scores were mostly stable over time. Nonverbal reasoning was related to some tests of writing mechanics and written expression of ideas. Short-term memory and inattention explained additional variance in Writing Samples and Spelling. Poor handwriting was associated with writing content beyond the impact of cognitive factors. Children with NF1 and PNs may benefit from early screening and writing support. Interventions should address the contribution of both cognitive and handwriting difficulties in written language.

Is musical expertise associated with self-reported foreign-language ability?

Many claims have been made about links between musical expertise and language ability. Rhythm ability, in particular, has been shown to predict phonological, grammatical, and second-language (L2) abilities, whereas music training often predicts reading and speech-perception skills. Here, we asked whether musical expertise-musical ability and/or music training-relates to L2 (English) abilities of Portuguese native speakers. Participants (N = 154) rated their L2 ability on seven 7-point scales, one each for speaking, reading, writing, comprehension, vocabulary, fluency, and accent. They also completed a test of general cognitive ability, an objective test of musical ability with melody and rhythm subtests, and a questionnaire that measured music training and other aspects of musical behaviors. L2 ability correlated positively with education and cognitive ability but not with music training. It also had no association with musical ability or with self-reports of musical behaviors. Moreover, Bayesian analyses provided evidence for the null hypotheses (i.e., no link between L2 and rhythm ability, no link between L2 and years of music lessons). In short, our findings-based on participants' self-reports of L2 ability-raise doubts about proposed associations between musical and second-language abilities, which may be limited to specific populations or measures. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Is Short Sleep Bad for the Brain? Brain Structure and Cognitive Function in Short Sleepers.

Many sleep less than recommended without experiencing daytime sleepiness. According to prevailing views, short sleep increases risk of lower brain health and cognitive function. Chronic mild sleep deprivation could cause undetected sleep debt, negatively affecting cognitive function and brain health. However, it is possible that some have less sleep need and are more resistant to negative effects of sleep loss. We investigated this using a cross-sectional and longitudinal sample of 47,029 participants of both sexes (20-89 years) from the Lifebrain consortium, Human Connectome project (HCP) and UK Biobank (UKB), with measures of self-reported sleep, including 51,295 MRIs of the brain and cognitive tests. A total of 740 participants who reported to sleep <6 h did not experience daytime sleepiness or sleep problems/disturbances interfering with falling or staying asleep. These short sleepers showed significantly larger regional brain volumes than both short sleepers with daytime sleepiness and sleep problems (n = 1742) and participants sleeping the recommended 7-8 h (n = 3886). However, both groups of short sleepers showed slightly lower general cognitive function (GCA), 0.16 and 0.19 SDs, respectively. Analyses using accelerometer-estimated sleep duration confirmed the findings, and the associations remained after controlling for body mass index, depression symptoms, income, and education. The results suggest that some people can cope with less sleep without obvious negative associations with brain morphometry and that sleepiness and sleep problems may be more related to brain structural differences than duration. However, the slightly lower performance on tests of general cognitive abilities warrants closer examination in natural settings.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Short habitual sleep is prevalent, with unknown consequences for brain health and cognitive performance. Here, we show that daytime sleepiness and sleep problems are more strongly related to regional brain volumes than sleep duration. However, participants sleeping ≤6 h had slightly lower scores on tests of general cognitive function (GCA). This indicates that sleep need is individual and that sleep duration per se is very weakly if at all related brain health, while daytime sleepiness and sleep problems may show somewhat stronger associations. The association between habitual short sleep and lower scores on tests of general cognitive abilities must be further scrutinized in natural settings.

Potential Elements for Development of a Versatile Cognitive Function Screening Tool

Cognitive function screening tools are so useful in detection of cognitive impairment resulted from both neurodegenerative, non-neurodegenerative, neurodevelopmental and non-neurodevelopmental disorders. Moreover, it is also used as cognitive aptitude tests or general cognitive ability tests in non-clinical settings such as in various recruitment processes. However, most of the cognitive function screening tools (CFST) available now is highly subjective and don’t encompass a wide range of cognitive biomarkers and also don’t apply a wide range of cognitive reagents. Whether cognitive function screening tools are pen-paper basedor digital, these essential elements have to be taken into consideration to ensure versatility, efficacy and accuracy of cognitive function screening tools. The same principle can be applied in development of cognitive function training tools (CFTT) that can potentially provide effective cognitive rehabilitation. A dual-functional model has been proposed and demonstrated that can potentially be used in pre-clinical and non-clinical settings.

Does Inclusion of Mental Agility Test in Admission Exam Help Better Student Selection in the Health Professions Education Programs?

Academic ability test has been used predominantly in student selection of medical and allied health profession education programs in Nepal. But the use of academic performance as the single selection criterion puts the students from low socioeconomic background at greater disadvantage despite equal suitability due to the lack of adequate guidance and support during their schooling. To address this limitation, use of aptitude test i.e. both the general cognitive and non-cognitive ability tests that measures fluid intelligence and personality traits respectively has been practiced. The measurement of non-cognitive traits has been found to predict the clinical examination score. In Nepal, for the first time, Patan Academy of Health Sciences implemented the assessment of aptitude test (both cognitive and non-cognitive ability test) for the student selection in the undergraduate medical program. Since the inception, Medical Education Commission in Nepal embraced Mental Agility Test, a component of an aptitude test, along with the academic ability test for the nationwide common entrance test in all the undergraduate Health Professions Education Programs. This indeed is an innovative approach in student selection, but in the context of Nepal whether the use of these tools is appropriate in the entrance exam requires psychometric evaluation and further validation through graduates' performance after their enrolment. Keywords: Health professions education; mental agility test; student selection.

Can musical ability be tested online?

We sought to determine whether an objective test of musical ability could be successfully administered online. A sample of 754 participants was tested with an online version of the Musical Ear Test (MET), which had Melody and Rhythm subtests. Both subtests had 52 trials, each of which required participants to determine whether standard and comparison auditory sequences were identical. The testing session also included the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index (Gold-MSI), a test of general cognitive ability, and self-report questionnaires that measured basic demographics (age, education, gender), mind-wandering, and personality. Approximately 20% of the participants were excluded for incomplete responding or failing to finish the testing session. For the final sample (N = 608), findings were similar to those from in-person testing in many respects: (1) the internal reliability of the MET was maintained, (2) construct validity was confirmed by strong associations with Gold-MSI scores, (3) correlations with other measures (e.g., openness to experience, cognitive ability, mind-wandering) were as predicted, (4) mean levels of performance were similar for individuals with no music training, and (5) musical sophistication was a better predictor of performance on the Melody than on the Rhythm subtest. In sum, online administration of the MET proved to be a reliable and valid way to measure musical ability.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.3758/s13428-021-01641-2.

Evaluating a Computerized Adaptive Testing Version of a Cognitive Ability Test Using a Simulation Study

This study evaluated the psychometric quality of a computerized adaptive testing (CAT) version of the general cognitive ability test (GCAT), using a simulation study protocol put forth by Han, K. T. (2018a). For the needs of the analysis, three different sets of items were generated, providing an item pool of 165 items. Before evaluating the efficiency of the GCAT, all items in the final item pool were linked (equated), following a sequential approach. Data were generated using a standard normal for 10,000 virtual individuals ( M = 0 and SD = 1). Using the measure’s 165-item bank, the ability value (θ) for each participant was estimated. maximum Fisher information (MFI) and maximum likelihood estimation with fences (MLEF) were used as item selection and score estimation methods, respectively. For item exposure control, the fade away method (FAM) was preferred. The termination criterion involved a minimum SE ≤ 0.33. The study revealed that the average number of items administered for 10,000 participants was 15. Moreover, the precision level in estimating the participant’s ability score was very high, as demonstrated by the CBIAS, CMAE, and CRMSE). It is concluded that the CAT version of the test is a promising alternative to administering the corresponding full-length measure since it reduces the number of administered items, prevents high rates of item exposure, and provides accurate scores with minimum measurement error.

Cerebral small vessel disease burden and longitudinal cognitive decline from age 73 to 82: the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936

Slowed processing speed is considered a hallmark feature of cognitive decline in cerebral small vessel disease (SVD); however, it is unclear whether SVD’s association with slowed processing might be due to its association with overall declining general cognitive ability. We quantified the total MRI-visible SVD burden of 540 members of the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 (age: 72.6 ± 0.7 years; 47% female). Using latent growth curve modelling, we tested associations between total SVD burden at mean age 73 and changes in general cognitive ability, processing speed, verbal memory and visuospatial ability, measured at age 73, 76, 79 and 82. Covariates included age, sex, vascular risk and childhood cognitive ability. In the fully adjusted models, greater SVD burden was associated with greater declines in general cognitive ability (standardised β: −0.201; 95% CI: [−0.36, −0.04]; pFDR = 0.022) and processing speed (−0.222; [−0.40, −0.04]; pFDR = 0.022). SVD burden accounted for between 4 and 5% of variance in declines of general cognitive ability and processing speed. After accounting for the covariance between tests of processing speed and general cognitive ability, only SVD’s association with greater decline in general cognitive ability remained significant, prior to FDR correction (−0.222; [−0.39, −0.06]; p = 0.008; pFDR = 0.085). Our findings do not support the notion that SVD has a specific association with declining processing speed, independent of decline in general cognitive ability (which captures the variance shared across domains of cognitive ability). The association between SVD burden and declining general cognitive ability supports the notion of SVD as a diffuse, whole-brain disease and suggests that trials monitoring SVD-related cognitive changes should consider domain-specific changes in the context of overall, general cognitive decline.

Do neurocognitive functions in cannabis induced psychosis groups differ from schizophrenia with cannabis use? A controlled cross-sectional study

Objective Cannabis-induced psychosis (CIP) has received little research attention. We compared neurocognitive functions in CIP, Schizophrenia with cannabis use (SZC) and healthy control group (CG). Methods Twenty age, education, and handedness-matched participants were recruited in each of the three groups. CIP and SZC were diagnosed with Psychiatric research interviews for substance use and mental disorders. Level of cannabis exposure, global intelligence, executive function, attention, vigilance, working, and verbal memory, and motor speed were compared by analysis of variance with post-hoc Scheffe’s test. We did a post-hoc power calculation. Results Age at initiation, frequency, duration, and preparation of cannabis use did not differ significantly between CIP and SZC. CIP performed significantly better (than SZC) in tests of general cognitive ability or intelligence and attention, perceptual tracking and sequencing. SZC showed significant dysfunctions (than CG) in all parameters of the tests for executive dysfunction, sustained attention, short-term verbal memory and psychomotor functioning. CIP and CG did not differ in any cognitive domains except for non-perseverative errors in the test for executive functioning. Conclusions CIP and SZC had different degrees of impairment compared to controls, but on direct comparisons CIP had better general intelligence and attention. KEY POINTS Cannabis-induced psychosis (CIP) may have different neurocognitive impairment than Schizophrenia with cannabis use (SZC) CIP performed better in tests for general intelligence and visual attention than SZC SZC had significant impairment in executive function, attention, verbal memory, and psychomotor speed than controls Compared to controls, CIP performed significantly worse in some domains of executive function CIP and SZC had different degrees of cognitive impairments as compared to the controls

Associations Between Hearing and Cognitive Abilities From Childhood to Middle Age: The National Child Development Study 1958.

Previous cross-sectional findings indicate that hearing and cognitive abilities are positively correlated in childhood, adulthood, and older age. We used an unusually valuable longitudinal dataset from a single-year birth cohort study, the National Child Development Study 1958, to test how hearing and cognitive abilities relate to one another across the life course from childhood to middle age. Cognitive ability was assessed with a single test of general cognitive ability at age 11 years and again with multiple tests at age 50. Hearing ability was assessed, using a pure tone audiogram, in childhood at ages 11 and 16 and again at age 44. Associations between childhood and middle-age hearing and cognitive abilities were investigated using structural equation modelling. We found that higher cognitive ability was associated with better hearing (indicated by a lower score on the hearing ability variables); this association was apparent in childhood (r = -0.120, p <0.001) and middle age (r = -0.208, p <0.001). There was a reciprocal relationship between hearing and cognitive abilities over time: better hearing in childhood was weakly associated with a higher cognitive ability in middle age (β = -0.076, p = 0.001), and a higher cognitive ability in childhood was associated with better hearing in middle age (β = -0.163, p <0.001). This latter, stronger effect was mediated by occupational and health variables in adulthood. Our results point to the discovery of a potentially life-long relationship between hearing and cognitive abilities and demonstrate how these variables may influence one another over time.

Assessment of cognitive ability at conscription for the Danish army: Is a single total score sufficient?

Børge Priens Prøve (BPP) was developed for the Danish Army by psychologist Børge Prien in the 1950s, as a test of general cognitive ability for use at conscription for the Danish armed forces. The final BPP (1957) had four subtests; a Raven-like matrix subtest, and three subtests measuring verbal, numerical, and visuospatial ability. The BPP is a speeded test counting the number of correct responses within 45minutes. Thus, we consider the BPP as a measure of "cognitive efficiency" rather than a pure measure of cognitive ability. The BPP is still in use.Using techniques available in 1960, Rasch concluded that the matrices and numerical tests appeared to satisfy the requirements of the Rasch (Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests, Danish Institute for Educational Research, Copenhagen; 1960) model, while the verbal and visuospatial tests did not. Since then, there have been, to our knowledge, no published studies of the psychometric scaling properties of the BPP, partly because the practice of the Danish draft board has been to record only the total score. We examine these properties by analysis of data from two cohorts (n=9,491), using the Leunbach (A probabilistic measurement model for assessing whether two tests measure the same personal factor. The Danish Institute of Educational, Copenhagen, Denmark; 1976) model to assess whether the sum of the four subtests provides a statistically sufficient measure of a common latent trait. Since we found only weak evidence against fit to the Leunbach model, we claim that this warrants the use of a summarized total BPP score. We examined whether BPP subscales suffered from differential test functioning (DTF) relative to samples. Weak, and for practical purposes too weak, DTF was suggested for one subscale.

Validating a Test for Measuring Knowledge and Understanding of Economics Among University Students

Abstract. University students' knowledge and understanding of economics have mostly been investigated cross-sectionally; however, longitudinal analyses are needed to determine which factors influence knowledge development and to draw valid conclusions based on test results. In the WiWiKom II project, a quasi-experimental longitudinal study was conducted assessing bachelor students of business and economics over the course of their studies in Germany (N = 39 universities). In this project, running from 2016 – 2019, the test-takers complete the WiWiKom II-test of economic knowledge (adapted TUCE4G and TEL4G items) and a general cognitive ability test (BEFKI 11) at four measurement points, each one year apart. In this paper, we describe the validation of the test instrument based on the data from the first measurement (winter semester 2016/17). We compare students' results on the economic knowledge test and the general cognitive abilities test between first-year students of economic sciences (N = 3,710) and social sciences (N = 1,347) to determine the discriminant validity of the economic knowledge test. The findings from the confirmatory factor analyses presented here show that the items on general cognitive ability and economic knowledge are empirically separable. As expected, there were no differences in the factorial structure between the comparison groups (economic vs. social science students) at the beginning of their studies.

Adult mood problems in children with neurodevelopmental problems: evidence from a prospective birth cohort followed to age 50

PurposeSpecific child neurodevelopmental (ND) disorders such as ADHD and learning problems are associated with concurrent and future (up to early adulthood) mood problems. However, it is unclear whether findings generalise to population traits as well as diagnoses, to general as well as specific neurodevelopmental domains, and whether risk associations extend to later adulthood or diminish with age.MethodsWe used data from a UK cohort of children born in 1958, the National Child Development Study (NCDS). ND problems were assessed at ages 7 and 11 years with parent- and teacher ratings of restlessness, hyperactivity and motor co-ordination difficulties, and by individual tests of reading, arithmetic and general cognitive ability. Mood (depression/anxiety) problems were assessed using the Malaise symptom screen at 23, 33, 42, and 50 years. Factor analyses were conducted to assess whether the specific neurodevelopmental domains could be aggregated into a general “ND” latent factor as well as specific factors. Associations with mood outcomes were then tested.ResultsA bi-factor model with a general “ND” latent factor and specific “motor” and “cognition” factors fits the data well. The specific cognition and motor factor scores were associated with mood problems in early adulthood only. The “ND” factor demonstrated associations with mood problems at each adult follow-up (men - age 23 years: β = 0.17; age 33: β = 0.16; age 42: β = 0.14; age 50: β = 0.16; women - 23 years: β = 0.25; 33 years: β = 0.26; 42 years: β = 0.14; 50 years: β = 0.16; all ps < 0.01). Interactions by sex indicated that the association between this general factor and mood problems was more pronounced for women than men at ages 23 years (β = 0.09, p = 0.005) and 33 years (β = 0.10, p = 0.003), but not at 42 or 50 years (ps > 0.8).ConclusionsOur results suggest that, in a population-based cohort, a general, childhood neurodevelopmental difficulty factor is stably associated with mood problems in adult life.

Event memory uniquely predicts memory for large-scale space.

When a person explores a new environment, they begin to construct a spatial representation of it. Doing so is important for navigating and remaining oriented. How does one's ability to learn a new environment relate to one's ability to remember experiences in that environment? Here, 208 adults experienced a first-person videotaped route, and then completed a spatial map construction task. They also took tests of general cognitive abilities (working memory, laboratory episodic memory, processing speed, general knowledge) and of memory for familiar, everyday activities (event memory). Regression analyses revealed that event memory (memory for everyday events and their temporal structure), laboratory episodic memory (memory for words and pictures) and gender were unique predictors of spatial memory. These results implicate the processing of temporal structure and organization as an important cognitive ability in large-scale spatial-memory-from-route experience. Accounting for the temporal structure of people's experience while learning the layout of novel spaces may improve interventions for addressing navigation problems.

Dopamine D1 receptor density in the mPFC responds to cognitive demands and receptor\xa0turnover contributes to general cognitive ability in mice

In both humans and mice, performance on tests of intelligence or general cognitive ability (GCA) is related to dopamine D1 receptor-mediated activity in the prelimbic cortex, and levels of DRD1 mRNA predict the GCA of mice. Here we assessed the turnover rate of D1 receptors as well as the expression level of the D1 chaperone protein (DRiP78) in the medial PPC (mPFC) of mice to determine whether rate of receptor turnover was associated with variations in the GCA of genetically heterogeneous mice. Following assessment of GCA (aggregate performance on four diverse learning tests) mice were administered an irreversible dopamine receptor antagonist (EEDQ), after which the density of new D1 receptors were quantified. GCA was positively correlated with both the rate of D1 receptor recovery and levels of DRiP78. Additionally, the density of D1 receptors was observed to increase within 60 min (or less) in response to intense demands on working memory, suggesting that a pool of immature receptors was available to accommodate high cognitive loads. These results provide evidence that innate general cognitive abilities are related to D1 receptor turnover rates in the prefrontal cortex, and that an intracellular pool of immature D1 receptors are available to accommodate cognitive demands.

An investigation of social class inequalities in general cognitive ability in two British birth cohorts

The 'Flynn effect' describes the substantial and long-standing increase in average cognitive ability test scores, which has been observed in numerous psychological studies. Flynn makes an appeal for researchers to move beyond psychology's standard disciplinary boundaries and to consider sociological contexts, in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive inequalities. In this article we respond to this appeal and investigate social class inequalities in general cognitive ability test scores over time. We analyse data from the National Child Development Study (1958) and the British Cohort Study (1970). These two British birth cohorts are suitable nationally representative large-scale data resources for studying inequalities in general cognitive ability. We observe a large parental social class effect, net of parental education and gender in both cohorts. The overall finding is that large social class divisions in cognitive ability can be observed when children are still at primary school, and similar patterns are observed in each cohort. Notably, pupils with fathers at the lower end of the class structure are at a distinct disadvantage. This is a disturbing finding and it is especially important because cognitive ability is known to influence individuals later in the lifecourse.

Neurocognitive Outcomes at 10 Years of Age in Extremely Preterm Newborns with Late-Onset Bacteremia

To evaluate the difference in 10-year neurocognitive outcomes between extremely low gestational age newborns without bacteremia and those with suspected or confirmed late-onset bacteremia. Neurocognitive function was evaluated at 10 years of age in 889 children born at <28 weeks of gestation and followed from birth. Definite (culture-positive) late-onset bacteremia during postnatal weeks 2-4 was identified in 223 children, and 129 children had suspected bacteremia. Infants with the lowest gestational age and birth weight z-score had the highest prevalence of definite and suspected late-onset bacteremia. Compared with peers with no or suspected bacteremia, infants with definite bacteremia performed worse on tests of general cognitive ability, language, academic achievement, and executive function, even after adjustment for potential confounders. Adjustment for low IQ attenuated the associations between bacteremia and all dysfunctions at age 10 years. Children with suspected bacteremia did not differ appreciably from those with no evidence of bacteremia. The motor domain was unaffected. Extremely low gestational age newborns who had definite late bacteremia during postnatal weeks 2-4 are at heightened risk of neurocognitive limitations at age 10 years.

Musical competence and phoneme perception in a foreign language

We investigated whether musical competence was associated with the perception of foreign-language phonemes. The sample comprised adult native-speakers of English who varied in music training. The measures included tests of general cognitive abilities, melody and rhythm perception, and the perception of consonantal contrasts that were phonemic in Zulu but not in English. Music training was associated positively with performance on the tests of melody and rhythm perception, but not with performance on the phoneme-perception task. In other words, we found no evidence for transfer of music training to foreign-language speech perception. Rhythm perception was not associated with the perception of Zulu clicks, but such an association was evident when the phonemes sounded more similar to English consonants. Moreover, it persisted after controlling for general cognitive abilities and music training. By contrast, there was no association between melody perception and phoneme perception. The findings are consistent with proposals that music- and speech-perception rely on similar mechanisms of auditory temporal processing, and that this overlap is independent of general cognitive functioning. They provide no support, however, for the idea that music training improves speech perception.

EACOL (Scale of Evaluation of Reading Competence by the Teacher): final validation and standardization

This study validates and standardizes the EACOL, a tool for teachers to assess the Portuguese-language reading (silent and aloud) of 2nd-to-5th-grade students. 72 teachers were asked to answer the EACOL and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires screening behavioral scale. 452 pupils performed a test battery composed by a general cognitive ability test and seven reading measures: Reading Performance Test, a Word and Pseudoword Reading Task (accuracy and accuracy rate measures), Reading Comprehension Test, and General Reading dimension reduction Composite. The instrument presented high internal consistency and moderate-to-strong correlations with all seven reading variables; cluster analysis suggested the existence of three proficiency groups (poor/average/good readers). This robust results attesting that the teachers, when provided with sound criteria, can come to reliable evaluations of their students’ reading ability. Discussion of discriminant validity is provided. With this final version of EACOL, we hope to offer to Portuguese-speaking researchers a validated instrument to indirectly assess the reading ability of schoolchildren, and to set out a model that can be adapted to other contexts.

MATRICES, UN NUEVO TEST PARA EVALUAR LA INTELIGENCIA GENERAL: PROCESO DE DESARROLLO Y PROPIEDADES PSICOMÉTRICAS MATRICES

A NEW TEST FOR ASSESSING GENERAL COGNITIVE ABILITY: DEVELOPMENT AND PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIESResumen.El uso de ítems con un formato de matrices es algo habitual en las pruebas de evaluación de las aptitudes mentales superiores y de la capacidad cognitiva general (g), siendo el Test de Matrices Progresivas de Raven la prueba más utilizada y reconocida en el área. Sin embargo, existen algunos inconvenientes importantes que pueden restringir el uso de esta prueba hoy en día (p. ej., sus ítems están muy divulgados y es fácil acceder a ellos mediante Internet, los baremos en algunos países están claramente desactualizados, el tiempo de aplicación es largo...). El Test de Inteligencia General MATRICES ha sido desarrollado con el objetivo de proporcionar una medida más eficiente de la capacidad cognitiva general (g) usandol ítems no verbales con este formato.