Test Meal Energy Intake Research Articles

Effects of pre-meal whey protein consumption on acute food intake and energy balance over a 48-hour period

• Whey protein (20 g) reduced energy intake in both HW (193.4 kcal, 15.9 %) and OV/OB (215.81 kcal, 17.8 %) when consumed 20 min prior to mealtime, compared to placebo. • Energy deficits induced in an ad libitum test meal did not upregulate compensatory behaviours over the following 48 h. • A slowed eating rate may influence food intake following premeal whey ingestion. The effects of pre-meal whey protein consumption on acute food intake and subsequent energy balance measured over 48-h was investigated in males of healthy-weight (HW) or living with overweight and obesity (OV/OB). On two separate trial days, following a controlled breakfast (09:00) and lunch (13:00), 12 HW and 12 OV/OB males consumed either whey protein (20 g) or flavoured water beverages (16:40), and ad libitum test meal (17:00). A controlled 48-h assessment of energy intake and expenditure was used to determine any compensatory behaviour. Test meal energy intake reduced 15.9 % in HW (P = 0.003), and 17.8 % in OV/OB (P = 0.005) following whey protein, compared to placebo. We report no between-group differences and no changes in compensatory behaviour. A small dose of whey protein reduces energy intake at the next meal, without upregulating compensatory behaviours in both HW and OV/OB males. However, chronic effects on body composition and weight loss remain to be elucidated.

Predictors of Post-Exercise Energy Intake in Adolescents Ranging in Weight Status from Overweight to Severe Obesity.

Exercise may sensitize individuals with overweight and obesity to appetitive signals (e.g., hunger and fullness cues), overriding trait eating behaviors that contribute to overeating and obesity, such as uncontrolled eating. The objective of the current study was to measure predictors of objective ad libitum energy intake at a laboratory-based, post-exercise test-meal in adolescents ranging in weight status from overweight to severe obesity. We hypothesized that appetitive states, rather than appetitive traits, would be the strongest predictors of energy intake at a post-exercise test-meal, after controlling for body size. At Baseline, 30 adolescents (ages 10–16 years, 50% female (F), 43% non-Hispanic white (NHW), 83% with obesity (OB)) completed state and trait appetite measures and an ad libitum dinner meal following intensive exercise. Nineteen of those participants (47% F, 32% NHW, 79% OB) completed identical assessments two years later (Year 2). Energy intake (kcal) at each time point was adjusted for fat-free mass index (i.e., body size). Adjusted energy intake was reliable from Baseline to Year 2 (ICC = 0.84). Multiple pre-meal appetite ratings were associated with test-meal energy intake. In stepwise linear regression models, pre-meal prospective food consumption was the strongest and only significant predictor of test-meal energy intake at both Baseline (R2 = 0.25, p = 0.005) and Year 2 (R2 = 0.41, p = 0.003). Baseline post-exercise energy intake was associated with weight change over two years (R2 = 0.24, p = 0.04), but not with change in fat mass (p = 0.11). Appetitive traits were not associated with weight or body composition change (p > 0.22). State appetite cues were the strongest predictors of post-exercise energy intake, independent of body size. Future studies should examine whether long-term exercise programs enhance responsiveness to homeostatic appetite signals in youth with overweight and obesity, with a goal to reduce excess energy intake and risk for weight gain over time.

Body Fatness Influences Associations of Body Composition and Energy Expenditure with Energy Intake in Healthy Women.

This study aimed to investigate the influence of body fatness on the associations of body composition and energy expenditure (EE) with energy intake (EI). Data from 93 women (BMI = 25.5 [SD 4.2] kg/m2 ) recruited for two studies (Study 1, n = 48, BMI = 25.0-34.9 kg/m2 ; Study 2, n = 45, BMI = 18.5-24.9 kg/m2 ) were examined. Body composition, resting metabolic rate (RMR), and test meal EI were assessed during a laboratory probe day. Physical activity, total daily EE (TDEE), and self-reported free-living 24-hour EI were collected during 7 days. In the whole sample, fat-free mass (r = 0.45; P < 0.001), RMR (r = 0.41; P < 0.001), and TDEE (r = 0.39; P < 0.001), but not fat mass (r = 0.17; P = 0.11), were positively associated with free-living 24-hour EI. Body fat percentage moderated the associations of RMR (β = -1.88; P = 0.02) and TDEE (β = -1.91; P = 0.03) with mean free-living 24-hour EI. Fat mass was negatively associated with test meal EI only in the leaner group (r = -0.43; P = 0.004), and a weak nonlinear association was observed in the whole sample (r2 = 0.092; P = 0.04). Body fat percentage appears to moderate the associations between EE and daily EI. Furthermore, the negative association between fat mass and test meal EI observed in leaner individuals was absent in those with higher body fatness. Therefore, higher levels of body fatness may weaken the coupling between EE and EI.

Does protein supplementation impact appetite and energy intake in older adults? A systematic review

AbstractProtein supplementation represents an attractive strategy to prevent skeletal muscle mass loss and function with aging. However, it could be counterproductive in older adults, due to adverse effects on appetite and energy intake (EI). Understanding the effects of protein supplementation on appetite and energy intake is therefore key when investigating the potential efficacy for use in improving health outcomes. This systematic review aimed to assess the literature investigating the effects of protein supplementation on energy intake, and/or appetite in healthy older adults.PubMed and The Cochrane Library, as well as MEDLINE, CINAHL, EBSCO, and Web of Science databases were searched up to 21 March 2019 for published studies and theses. The review was limited to randomized controlled trials and longitudinal studies in healthy adults over 60 years of age that reported effects of protein supplementation compared to control or pre-intervention on appetite and/or energy intake. The review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines.Out of 5,429 articles screened, 90 full-texts were reviewed and twenty-six studies (11 acute, 15 longitudinal) included. Studies involved a total of 1439 participants (502 male, 881 females). Of the acute studies, 3 reported conditions in which appetite was suppressed, 5 studies reported no effect and one study reported a condition in which appetite ratings increased following a protein load versus control. Three studies reported conditions in which ad libitum test meal EI was suppressed following protein preload and 7 reported no difference. When examining total EI (accounting for protein supplement and test meal), 2 studies reported no difference and 8 reported conditions where total EI was increased with protein supplement compared to control. Longitudinal studies ranged from 2–26 weeks duration. Two studies reported effects on appetite, one showing hunger to be suppressed on higher (1.0g/kg/d) compared to lower protein diet, and another showing hunger in response to whey consumption increased, but fullness also increased.14 studies reported effects on EI, most commonly assessed by food diary, and all showed no effect of increased protein intake compared to control on daily EI.The systematic review indicates that while appetite may be suppressed under some conditions, the current literature supports protein supplementation in older adults, as it either has a positive effect or no effect on total EI in both short and longer-term studies. Therefore, protein supplementation may represent an effective solution to address protein deficiencies in older adults without compromising daily EI.

Cross-over studies underestimate energy compensation: The example of sucrose-versus sucralose-containing drinks

The vast majority of preload-test-meal studies that have investigated the effects on energy intake of disguised nutrient or other food/drink ingredient manipulations have used a cross-over design. We argue that this design may underestimate the effect of the manipulation due to carry-over effects. To test this we conducted comparable cross-over (n = 69) and parallel-groups (n = 48) studies testing the effects of sucrose versus low-calorie sweetener (sucralose) in a drink preload on test-meal energy intake. The parallel-groups study included a baseline day in which only the test meal was consumed. Energy intake in that meal was used to control for individual differences in energy intake in the analysis of the effects of sucrose versus sucralose on energy intake on the test day. Consistent with our prediction, the effect of consuming sucrose on subsequent energy intake was greater when measured in the parallel-groups study than in the cross-over study (respectively 64% versus 36% compensation for the 162 kcal difference in energy content of the sucrose and sucralose drinks). We also included a water comparison group in the parallel-groups study (n = 24) and found that test-meal energy intake did not differ significantly between the water and sucralose conditions. Together, these results confirm that consumption of sucrose in a drink reduces subsequent energy intake, but by less than the energy content of the drink, whilst drink sweetness does not increase food energy intake. Crucially, though, the studies demonstrate that study design affects estimated energy compensation.

Reproducibility of subjective appetite ratings and ad libitum test meal energy intake in overweight and obese males

Background: To determine whether changes in appetite and energy intake (EI) can be detected and play a role in the effectiveness of interventions, it is necessary to identify their variability under normal conditions. We assessed the reproducibility of subjective appetite ratings and ad libitum test meal EI after a standardised pre-load in overweight and obese males. Methods: Fifteen overweight and obese males (BMI 30.3 ± 4.9 kg/m2, aged 34.9 ± 10.6 years) completed two identical test days, 7 days apart. Participants were provided with a standardised fixed breakfast (1676 kJ) and 5 h later an ad libitum pasta lunch. An electronic appetite rating system was used to assess subjective ratings before and after the fixed breakfast, and periodically during the postprandial period. EI was assessed at the ad libitum lunch meal. Sample size estimates for paired design studies were calculated. Results: Appetite ratings demonstrated a consistent oscillating pattern between test days, and were more reproducible for mean postprandial than fasting ratings. The correlation between ad libitum EI on the two test days was r = 0.78 (P < 0.01). Using a paired design and a power of 0.8, a minimum of 12 participants would be needed to detect a 10 mm change in 5 h postprandial mean ratings and 17 to detect a 500 kJ difference in ad libitum EI. Conclusion: Intra-individual variability of appetite and ad libitum test meal EI in overweight and obese males is comparable to previous reports in normal weight adults. Sample size requirements for studies vary depending on the parameter of interest and sensitivity needed.

Influence of netball-based exercise on energy intake, subjective appetite and plasma acylated ghrelin in adolescent girls

This study explored 5-day regulation of exercise-induced energy expenditure, energy intake, and hormonal appetite, via acylated ghrelin, after acute exercise. Using a randomized crossover design, 10 female adolescents (13-15 years old) completed two 7-day treatment weeks (2 days of maintenance, 1 day of treatment, and a 4-day follow-up), interspersed with a 1-week period. On day 3, 47 min of netball-based exercise or sedentary activity was imposed with a test meal 1 h later. Measures of energy expenditure, subjective appetite, test meal energy intake, plasma acylated ghrelin, insulin, and glucose were taken during this period. Energy intake compensation for the exercise period was calculated. Four-day follow-up measures were daily subjective appetite, energy intake, energy expenditure, and energy balance. Girls felt more full 20 min during the netball-based exercise bout compared with sedentary activity (87 ± 15 mm vs. 75 ± 24 mm). An energy intake compensation of 27% was identified for the netball-based exercise. Compared with immediately before exercise or sedentary activity, plasma acylated ghrelin was elevated 45 min after netball (103.8 ± 56.9 pg·mL(-1) vs. 85.7 ± 26.9 pg·mL(-1); n = 7) and sedentary activity (98.2 ± 27.1 pg·mL(-1) vs. 60.8 ± 33.5 pg·mL(-1); n = 7) but not different between treatments. Adolescent girls (13-15 years old) only partially compensated for the netball-based exercise-induced energy expenditure. The effect of exercise on appetite needs to be further explored in adolescents, whereby nutritional behaviour is tracked for more than 1 week to investigate full compensation for acute exercise.

Polydextrose results in a dose-dependent reduction inad libitumenergy intake at a subsequent test meal

Previous studies have reported that polydextrose can reduce food intake; however, the optimal dose required to achieve this effect is currently unknown. The present study investigated the effects of consuming a range of doses of polydextrose on appetite and energy intake (EI) using a randomised within-subject, cross-over design. For this purpose, twenty-one participants (n 12 men, n 9 women) consumed an 837 kJ liquid preload containing 0 g (control), 6.3, 12.5 or 25 g polydextrose. Subjective appetite ratings were collected using visual analogue scales and an ad libitum test meal was served 90 min later. Participants recorded EI for the remainder of the day in a food diary. Test meal EI following the control preload (5756 (sem 423) kJ) was significantly higher than following the 6.3 g (5048 (sem 384) kJ), 12.5 g (4722 (sem 384) kJ) and 25 g (4362 (sem 316) kJ) preloads (P< 0.05), and EI following the 6.3 g preload was significantly higher than following the 25 g preload (P< 0.01). There were no differences in self-reported EI during the remainder of the day between the preloads containing the varying doses of polydextrose. Total EI (breakfast+preload+ad libitum test meal+remainder of the day) was significantly higher when the control preload was consumed (12,051 (sem 805) kJ) compared with either the 12.5 g (10,854 (sem 589) kJ) or 25 g (10,658 (sem 506) kJ) preload (P< 0.05). These differences in EI were not accompanied by corresponding differences in subjective appetite ratings. In summary, polydextrose effectively reduces subsequent EI in a dose-dependent manner.

Water Consumption Increases Weight Loss During a Hypocaloric Diet Intervention in Middle‐aged and Older Adults

Water consumption acutely reduces meal energy intake (EI) among middle-aged and older adults. Our objectives were to determine if premeal water consumption facilitates weight loss among overweight/obese middle-aged and older adults, and to determine if the ability of premeal water consumption to reduce meal EI is sustained after a 12-week period of increased water consumption. Adults (n = 48; 55-75 years, BMI 25-40 kg/m(2)) were assigned to one of two groups: (i) hypocaloric diet + 500 ml water prior to each daily meal (water group), or (ii) hypocaloric diet alone (nonwater group). At baseline and week 12, each participant underwent two ad libitum test meals: (i) no preload (NP), and (ii) 500 ml water preload (WP). Meal EI was assessed at each test meal and body weight was assessed weekly for 12 weeks. Weight loss was ~2 kg greater in the water group than in the nonwater group, and the water group (beta = -0.87, P < 0.001) showed a 44% greater decline in weight over the 12 weeks than the nonwater group (beta = -0.60, P < 0.001). Test meal EI was lower in the WP than NP condition at baseline, but not at week 12 (baseline: WP 498 +/- 25 kcal, NP 541 +/- 27 kcal, P = 0.009; 12-week: WP 480 +/- 25 kcal, NP 506 +/- 25 kcal, P = 0.069). Thus, when combined with a hypocaloric diet, consuming 500 ml water prior to each main meal leads to greater weight loss than a hypocaloric diet alone in middle-aged and older adults. This may be due in part to an acute reduction in meal EI following water ingestion.

Sex and Cognitive Dietary Restraint Influence Cholecystokinin Release and Satiety in Response to Preloads Varying in Fatty Acid Composition and Content

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of preloads differing in fatty acid composition, content, and delivery form on acute behavioral, subjective, and biological outcomes of satiety. Four energy- and volume-matched preloads were tested in normal weight men and women (n = 12 and 13, respectively), using a random, crossover design. Preloads were semisolid shakes differing in fat source [walnut or safflower (SAFF)], delivery [ground walnuts (WNT) or walnut oil (WOL)] or content [39% fat energy (SAFF, WNT, WOL) or 4% low-fat control (LFC)]. Blood was collected and subjective satiety assessed at 0 (fasting), 15, 30, and 45 min after preload consumption. Lunch (test meal) was provided thereafter. Energy intake at lunch was not affected by preload; however, subjects selected more carbohydrate, fiber-rich foods at the test meal lunch after walnut preloads than after LFC or SAFF preloads. Compared with the LFC preload, appetite satisfaction was significantly greater after SAFF and WNT, but not after WOL. Women were hungrier after SAFF than after WOL, whereas men were less hungry after SAFF and LFC than after WOL or WNT. Plasma cholecystokinin (CCK) concentrations reflected preload fat content and availability, particularly among men; CCK was higher after WOL and SAFF preloads than after LFC or WNT preloads. Plasma insulin was higher after LFC and SAFF preloads, corresponding to hunger suppression in men. Dietary restraint was associated with a blunted CCK response to preloads, whereas insulin was not affected by restraint. The results indicate that test meal energy intake after preloads containing approximately 40% walnut or safflower fat or 4% fat did not differ; however, walnut consumption may promote food patterns consistent with consuming diets higher in fiber.

Effects of Sweetness and Energy in Drinks on Food Intake Following Exercise

Exercise is known to cause physiological changes that could affect the impact of nutrients on appetite control. This study was designed to assess the effect of drinks containing either sucrose or high-intensity sweeteners on food intake following exercise. Using a repeated-measures design, three drink conditions were employed: plain water (W), a low-energy drink sweetened with artificial sweeteners aspartame and acesulfame-K (L), and a high-energy, sucrose-sweetened drink (H). Following a period of challenging exercise (70% VO 2 max for 50 min), subjects consumed freely from a particular drink before being offered a test meal at which energy and nutrient intakes were measured. The degree of pleasantness (palatability) of the drinks was also measured before and after exercise. At the test meal, energy intake following the artificially sweetened (L) drink was significantly greater than after water and the sucrose (H) drinks ( p < 0.05). Compared with the artificially sweetened (L) drink, the high-energy (H) drink suppressed intake by approximately the energy contained in the drink itself. However, there was no difference between the water (W) and the sucrose (H) drink on test meal energy intake. When the net effects were compared (i.e., drink + test meal energy intake), total energy intake was significantly lower after the water (W) drink compared with the two sweet (L and H) drinks. The exercise period brought about changes in the perceived pleasantness of the water, but had no effect on either of the sweet drinks. The remarkably precise energy compensation demonstrated after the higher energy sucrose drink suggests that exercise may prime the system to respond sensitively to nutritional manipulations. The results may also have implications for the effect on short-term appetite control of different types of drinks used to quench thirst during and after exercise.

Effects of Preloads of Differing Energy and Macronutrient Content on Eating Behavior in Bulimia Nervosa

Evidence suggests that bulimics demonstrate blunted satiety possibly due to repeated episodes of overeating. This suggestion was tested further by comparing responses to yogurt preloads differing in carbohydrate and fat relative to a lower energy control yogurt in 12 bulimics and 12 age- and weight-matched controls. Participants were tested on three occasions at lunchtime. On each occasion, appetite and mood were rated before and after receiving a lunch of raspberry yogurt (350 g). Covert manipulation of energy and nutrient content was achieved by matching the yogurts on sensory properties and formulating a control yogurt (161 kcal), a high-fat version (357 kcal: 65% calories from fat), and a high-carbohydrate version (357 kcal: 81% calories from carbohydrate). Although there were no differential effects of the preloads on intake of anad libitumtest meal given 5 hr later in either the control or bulimic groups, there were significant differences in test meal energy intake between groups. On average and with all conditions combined, bulimics ate significantly fewer calories (775±167 kcal) than controls (1182±94 kcal) and consumed a greater percentage of calories from carbohydrate than controls. Bulimics restricted their intake relative to controls, and chose foods low in fat. This study provides further evidence of restricted eating in bulimia nervosa when the opportunity to purge is not available. Furthermore, the present study suggests that intake by bulimics is not influenced by nutrient contentper sebut by consideration of the caloric value of foods and the consequences of eating certain foods for weight control.