Territorial Responses Research Articles

Reformulating action research to facilitate territorial responses to climate change

This article serves as an introduction to the special issue by presenting the results of a learning process shared by action researchers coming from different action research traditions and geographical areas. The goal of this learning process has been to generate explicit criteria and features that action researchers can integrate in their facilitative work in territorial development processes to make these development processes more effective in facing climate change. These criteria relate to the roots of climate change, justice, innovative ways to understand democracy and governance, the contribution of feminism to climate change and the role of emotions when facing it. These reflections and learnings are synthesized into twelve principles for action research for territorial development (ARTD).

Consistent dear enemy effect despite variation in territorial centrality and population density in Rufous Horneros

ABSTRACT Social discrimination is used as a territorial cost-mitigation behaviour across several taxonomic groups. However, whether this phenomenon is similar across populations or varies due to local ecological traits remains an open field. Here, we tested whether social discrimination ability exhibited by pairs of Rufous Horneros (Furnarius rufus) varies between two spatially distinct Brazilian populations (Brasília and Juiz de Fora), with contrasting population densities. We predicted that Rufous Horneros would show the highest aggression towards strangers’ duets in the low-density population (the ‘dear enemy effect’), and towards neighbours’ duets in the high-density population (the ‘nasty neighbour effect’). We also examined the impact of territorial centrality (distance to the centre of the conspecific neighbourhood) on territorial responses, assuming that territorial harassment varies with centrality. We observed a consistent dear enemy effect expression (i.e. lower response to simulated intrusions by neighbours compared to strangers) across both populations, despite their differing densities. Additionally, we found no effect of territorial centrality on playback responses. Our findings show that the dear enemy effect is widely distributed in Rufous Horneros, at least in the breeding season, being observed even in a high-density population. Our findings also highlight the lack of advantages for central territories. Future studies should investigate whether territorial mitigation strategies exhibit consistency across different contexts and taxa.

Size matters: Natural experiments suggest the dear enemy effect is moderated by pack size in African wild dogs.

Remote monitoring of communal marking sites, or latrines, provides a unique opportunity to observe undisturbed scent marking behaviour of African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). We used remote camera trap observations in a natural experiment to test behavioural scent mark responses to rivals (either familiar neighbours or unfamiliar strangers), to determine whether wild dogs exhibit the "dear enemy" or "nasty neighbour" response. Given that larger groups of wild dogs represent a greater threat to smaller groups, including for established residents, we predicted that the overarching categories "dear enemy" vs. "nasty neighbour" may be confounded by varying social statuses that exists between individual dyads interacting. Using the number of overmarks as a metric, results revealed an interaction between sender and receiver group size irrespective of familiarity consistent with this prediction: in general, individuals from large resident packs overmarked large groups more than they overmarked smaller groups, whereas individuals from smaller packs avoided overmarking larger groups, possibly to avoid detection. Monitoring a natural system highlights variables such as pack size that may be either overlooked or controlled during scent presentation experiments, influencing our ability to gain insights into the factors determining territorial responses to rivals.

Intra- and inter-specific territorial response of diurnal raptors in the tropical dry forest of western Mexico

Little is known of intra- and inter-specific territoriality in Neotropical raptors that may defend territories throughout the year, and face greater inter-specific competition for resources. We evaluated intra- and inter-specific territorial responses of four species of Neotropical raptors in the tropical dry forest of the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve, Mexico. We conducted broadcast calls in territories of the Collared Forest-Falcon (Micrastur semitorquatus), Crane Hawk (Geranospiza caerulescens), Gray Hawk (Buteo plagiatus), and Roadside Hawk (Rupornis magnirostris), and measured the latency, duration, and type of territorial response to broadcast calls of conspecifics and sympatric raptor species. We applied repeated measures analysis to determine differences in intra- and inter-specific territorial responses of raptors, and GLMMs to evaluate whether traits of body size, nest type, and hunting technique were associated with territorial response by focal raptors. Large-bodied focal raptor species showed high intra-specific territoriality, giving faster, prolonged responses of various types, including duets and combined responses, to broadcast calls of conspecifics compared to sympatric species. All focal raptors showed some inter-specific territorial response, but this was mainly as vocalizations or displacements towards sympatric species broadcast calls. Species traits of body size, nest type, and hunting technique were associated with latency and duration of territorial response by the larger raptor species that nest in the forest canopy. These traits may be more strongly associated with territorial response of forest raptors that defend limited resources in a structurally complex environment.

Nuthatch (Sitta europaea) responses towards simulated territorial intrusion (STI) vary in strength during the non-breeding season — a matter of temperature and photoperiod?

Abstract Many bird species defend their territories against conspecifics during the breeding season. Although some temperate species have been observed to defend territories outside of the breeding season, such cases are rarely noted in the literature, and it remains largely unknown which environmental factors influence such behaviour. In this study, we investigated non-breeding territorial behaviour in the Eurasian nuthatch (Sitta europaea). Territorial responses were elicited with a simulated territory intrusion (playbacks of calls combined with a wooden model of nuthatch) in autumn, winter and spring. Territorial responses did not differ between autumn and winter but differed between the autumn/winter and spring; they declined until about mid-December (winter) and increased after that into the spring. We found an increase in territorial responses with increasing photoperiod (day length) in autumn and with decreasing ambient temperature during spring. Our study provides novel evidence about non-breeding territorial behaviour in temperate birds and indicates that this behaviour is influenced by environmental factors.

The impact of covid-19 pandemic on Albanian health emergency operation centre

Abstract During the COVID-19 pandemic, each State adopted different health emergency strategies to face this new challenge. After the first hospital centred answer, these strategies promoted the strengthening of the territorial health assistance as better response to population health needs at worldwide level. This approach was especially important in the countries in transition, where the hospital systems are weaker. This research aims to assess the impact of these new health policy strategies on health emergency operation centre (HEOC) in a country in transition. Country case study was found to be the most effective methodology. Albania was a significant case study due to its ongoing efforts to align its national healthcare system with European health standards being in pre-adhesion to the European Union. Moreover, this country has recently implemented a modern national HEOC (2018). The data shows that at the beginning to COVID-19 pandemic, the response by HEOC was limited and mainly hospital-centred. In 2020 only 8% of the calls for COVID-19 to the HEOC had an intervention, that was in the 49% a transport in hospital. Medical consultations and treatments on site were only the 4%. In 2021, the issue of guidelines aimed at giving priority to the territorial health assistance brought to a relevant reduction of calls (-64%). It allowed the HEOC to enlarge its response until to give a response to the 34% of calls. The 15% of calls were managed by medical consultations and 18% by treatments on site. The cases transported in hospital were always the 50% but they decreased off -63% in absolute value. In Albania the implementation of national health policy strategies that have enhanced the territorial response to COVID-19 pandemic, relieved the pressure on HEOC by calls’ reduction. In this way, HEOC focused its efforts on the applications of territorial responses instead of hospitalization, according to national health policy strategies, increasing its responsiveness. Key messages • The enhancement of the territorial response to COVID-19 pandemic has eased the pressure on the Albanian HEOC. • The territorial response to COVID-19 pandemic by the Albanian HEOC especially focused on mainly the provision of medical consultations and treatments on site.

Slow song syllable rates provoke stronger male territorial responses in Eurasian Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus scirpaceus)

Slow song syllable rates provoke stronger male territorial responses in Eurasian Reed Warblers (Acrocephalus scirpaceus)

What Drives Users to Go Beyond Mere Contribution? – The Role of Perceived Ownership

As digitization proceeds, relying on user communities to gain knowledge has become increasingly important for many firms. If firms want to benefit from such user communities providing knowledge and ideas, it is essential that users do not only contribute to the community but also give up some of their intellectual property rights so that others can build on their contributions in a cumulative manner. While previous research has shown that users can benefit from allowing others to build on their contributions, not all users decide to do so. We argue that this is due to perceived psychological ownership of the product, which can result in territorial responses and is particularly strong among users with high levels of reputation among community members. On the other hand, high levels of reciprocity among users shift the perceived locus of product ownership from the individual user to the community, and thus increase the likelihood that users give up some of their intellectual property rights and allow others to build on their contributions. We use data from the 3D-printable design community Thingiverse to test our claims and find evidence that is consistent with our theoretical reasoning.

Prior territorial responses and home range size predict territory defense in radio-tagged great tits

Territorial animals often use signals to advertise territorial occupancy within their larger home ranges. Songbirds are among the best-studied territorial signaling taxa, and when competitors start singing during a territorial intrusion, residents usually show elevated spatial and vocal responses. These responses could be used by intruders and distant eavesdroppers to predict future responses or to compare responses across competitors. Yet, the extent to which responses of a resident to a territorial intrusion predict its future responses and its overall spatial behavior (home range) within a neighborhood is less well understood. We used wild great tits (Parus major) as a model species in repeated song playback trials, simulating territorial intrusions combined with radio-tracking before and during playback trials. The time spent close to the loudspeaker in response to an initial simulated intrusion predicted the same response variable during a second simulated intrusion on the next day, whereas singing activity during the first simulated intrusion did not predict singing during the second simulated intrusion. We also show that more explorative males (as determined by a novel environment test) and males with smaller home ranges sang more and spent more time near the loudspeaker in response to both simulated intrusions. Thus, by probing residents, intruders can obtain reliable information about subsequent response probabilities, while eavesdroppers from a distance, who can use auditory information only, would not receive sufficient predictive information. Our findings also suggest that males with larger home ranges are more tolerant toward intruders, which could reflect a trade-off between tendencies to respond strongly and to range widely. The lack of predictability of singing activity with regard to responses to future intrusions might explain why territorial animals continuously exchange vocal signals and regularly foray into neighboring territories, as a way to obtain regular information updates.Significance StatementAnimals use experience from interactions with conspecifics in their future decision making, such as mate choice and strategies for conflict resolution. The value of such information depends in part on the predictability of the future behavior of that conspecific. In songbirds, territorial individuals respond to intruders by approach and signaling. Here, we tested in radio-tagged great tits (Parus major) if territorial responses are predictable and are affected by individual and environmental factors. We show that the time spent near the simulated intruder was more predictable than singing activity and that birds with larger home ranges showed weaker responses. These findings suggest that information based on such spatial responses is more useful for future decision making, as compared to vocal information, and that distant eavesdroppers will thus receive less reliable information. Limited predictability may explain why territorial animals continuously exchange vocal signals and foray into neighboring territories, providing opportunities for regular information updates.

A methodological proposal to evaluate the health hazard scenario from COVID-19 in Italy

2019 Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) had a big impact in Italy, mainly concentrated in the northern part of the Country. All this was mainly due to similarities of this area with Wuhan in Hubei Province, according to geographical, environmental and socio-economic points of view. The basic hypothesis of this research was that the presence of atmospheric pollutants can generate stress on health conditions of the population and determine pre-conditions for the development of diseases of the respiratory system and complications related to them. In most cases the attention on environmental aspects is mainly concentrated on pollution, neglecting issues such as land management which, in some way, can contribute to reducing the impact of pollution. The reduction of land take and the decrease in the loss of ecosystem services can represent an important aspect in improving environmental quality. In order to integrate policies for environmental change and human health, the main factors analyzed in this paper can be summarized in environmental, climatic and land management. The main aim of this paper was to produce three different hazard scenarios respectively related to environmental, climatic and land management-related factors. A Spatial Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method has been applied over thirteen informative layers grouped in aggregation classes of environmental, climatic and land management.The results of the health hazard maps show a disparity in the distribution of territorial responses to the pandemic in Italy. The environmental components play an extremely relevant role in the definition of the red zones of hazard, with a consequent urgent need to renew sustainable development strategies.The comparison of hazard maps related to different scenarios provides decision makers with tools to orient policy choices with a different degree of priority according to a place-based approach. In particular, the geospatial representation of risks could be a tool for legitimizing the measures chosen by decision-makers, proposing a renewed approach that highlights and takes account of the differences between the spatial contexts to be considered - Regions, Provinces, Municipalities - also in terms of climatic and environmental variables.

My phone, my zone: Restaurant consumers’ territorial responses to unsolicited recommendation on their smartphones

In the past few years, an increasing number of restaurants have integrated self-service technology. Consumers today can engage in self-service using devices that restaurants provide onsite or their smartphones to access the restaurants’ online systems. Yet, limited research exists on the influence of interacting with different self-service devices on consumer behavior. The present research investigated the effect of self-service device type on consumers’ territorial behavior through four scenario-based experiments. Specifically, when consumers use their smartphones (vs. using the ordering devices provided by the restaurants) to order food, their compliance with restaurants’ unsolicited food recommendations decreased (Studies 1a and 1b) because consumers perceived those recommendations as infringements on their ordering process (Study 2). Moreover, consumers’ familiarity with restaurants’ environments moderated this effect (Study 3). Our findings add to the research on self-service and consumer territoriality and provide practical implications for marketers. • The type of self-service devices influences consumers’ perceived territoriality. • Smartphone ordering reduces consumers’ compliance with unsolicited recommendations. • Consumers’ familiarity with restaurant environment alleviates the proposed effect.

Territorial responses of male Bermuda White‐eyed Vireos (Vireo griseussubsp.bermudianus) reflect phylogenetic similarity of intruders and acoustic similarity of their songs

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Differences in plumage coloration predict female but not male territorial responses in three antbird sister species pairs

Social selection, via intra- and intersexual competition for sexual (e.g. mates) and/or nonsexual (e.g. territories) resources, is thought to drive the evolution of ornaments in both sexes. However, the relative importance of intra- and intersexual competition in promoting the evolution of female and male ornamentation and, hence, sexual dichromatism remains poorly understood. We addressed this issue in antbirds (Thamnophilidae), a radiation of sexually dichromatic passerines wherein eumelanic plumage patches have evolved multiple times in both sexes. In antbirds, the degree of sexual dichromatism differs between closely related species primarily due to eumelanic dark patches in either sex. If eumelanic patches evolved by social selection, individuals of species bearing more conspicuous eumelanic patches should display stronger territorial responses regardless of their sex. Using playback experiments, we simulated three conspecific territorial intrusion types – a social pair, a female and a male – and measured responses by social pairs of two sister species pairs exhibiting greater interspecific differences in female coloration and one sister species pair exhibiting greater interspecific differences in male coloration. We found that females of species bearing more conspicuous eumelanic patches responded more strongly than females of species bearing less conspicuous eumelanic patches, but only towards simulated female and/or male intruders. However, males responded similarly to all intrusions regardless of interspecific coloration differences. Our results suggest that eumelanic patches in antbirds may function as ornaments and that greater female ornamentation may function in intra- and intersexual contexts and reflect stronger social competition in ornamented females for territories and, possibly, mates. In contrast, in species pairs with greater interspecific differences in male ornamentation, territorial competition may occur predominantly among males and female mate choice may drive the evolution of male ornamentation. Our study highlights that social selection pressures acting on both sexes may drive the evolution of contrasting sexual dichromatism patterns. • Antbird sister species differed in female or male eumelanic coloration. • Female coloration was positively associated with female territorial responses. • Male coloration was not associated with male territorial responses. • Both sexes may show intra- and intersexual territorial responses. • Patterns of sexual dichromatism may evolve by social selection acting on both sexes.

Territorial Responses of Nuthatches Sitta europaea—Evaluation of a Robot Model in a Simulated Territorial Intrusion

In birds, aggressive behavior can be elicited in the field with a simulated territory intrusion (STI). Here, we compared four different STI methods in nuthatches in the non-breeding season: playback only, playback combined with an inactive wooden model mounted on a robot device, playback and an active model mounted on a robot device, and playback with the robot device only. In the control treatment, birds were not exposed to STI. Experiments were carried out in 12 territories. Behavioral observations included latency to approach, latency to start calling, time spent in the same tree, number of flyovers, minimum distance, number of individuals, number of flights into the tree, and number of calls. There was no significant influence of stimulus presentation. Nuthatches responded equally to all four experimental manipulations, but order of presentation had a strong influence.

Consumer territorial responses in service settings

PurposeCustomers can be territorial, which results in reactive behaviors that can hurt firm profitability. This study aims to expand the typology of customer territorial responses previously identified in the environmental psychology and marketing literature.Design/methodology/approachThe authors use a mixture of quantitative and qualitative approaches. The exploratory studies elicit and test a typology of consumer territorial responses using critical incident technique and factor analysis. Two surveys use the typology. Study 1 examines intrusiveness in grocery store settings. Study 2 expands the model with specialty store shoppers to examine how rapport, employee greed, entitlement and time pressure interact with intrusion pressure and relate to customer territorial responses.FindingsThe results indicate a new category of territorial responses – deferential verbalizations – and show relationships between intrusion pressure and deferential actions, retaliatory verbalizations, retaliatory actions and abandonment. The relationships are affected by the moderators, including rapport, which interacts with intrusion pressure to increase the likelihood of switching.Research limitations/implicationsCollecting data near closing time restricted observations and consumer time to participate using self-report data. The results should be replicated with other populations and service providers.Practical implicationsManagers should monitor customer treatment during closing time. The results indicate consumer responses to closing time cues not only impact their shopping trip but also affect whether they will patronize the store in the future.Originality/valueThe study provides an expanded typology of territorial responses, identifies moderating factors that may affect responses and links employee intrusiveness and territorial responses to store patronage.

Distant neighbours: friends or foes? Eurasian beavers show context-dependent responses to simulated intruders

Neighbour-stranger discrimination is widespread in territorial animals, and depending on the relative threat posed by neighbours and strangers, residents commonly exhibit either the “dear enemy phenomenon” or the “nasty neighbour effect”. Different members of the same group may represent different threat levels, and the response of residents can be modified depending on, e.g. the sex and dominance status of the intruder. Neighbour-stranger discrimination is primarily investigated in neighbours with shared borders, and whether residents recognize their more distant neighbours remains unexplored. Here, using experimental scent marks, we investigated whether Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber) discriminate between distant neighbours (i.e. two territories away) and strangers (i.e. further away than the known dispersal distance). We tested the hypotheses that Eurasian beavers can discriminate between distant neighbours and strangers and that social status (i.e. sub-dominant or dominant) and sex of the intruder affect the responses of resident beavers. We predicted that resident beavers show the “dear enemy phenomenon” in response towards dominant distant neighbours due to their territory ownership and the “nasty neighbour effect” in response towards sub-dominants due to their likelihood to disperse. Sex of residents and social status of intruders were important in explaining territorial responses, with males exhibiting stronger responses to sub-dominant distant neighbours, especially males, than sub-dominant strangers. No such discrimination was found by females or between dominant distant neighbours and strangers. We suggest that the “nasty neighbour” response by male resident beavers towards sub-dominant distant neighbours relates to the relative threat levels due to repeated intrusions during dispersal attempts. Territorial animals discriminate between neighbours and strangers to allocate aggressive behaviour to conspecific intruders. This neighbour-stranger discrimination has primarily been investigated between adjacent neighbours, but extraterritorial movements of residents into distant territories occur. Whether residents can discriminate between distant neighbours and strangers has only been studied in skylarks (Alauda arvensis), based on acoustic communication. Yet, it is unknown whether distant neighbours are perceived as neighbours or strangers based on olfactory recognition. Here we investigated whether Eurasian beavers (C. fiber) can discriminate between distant neighbours (i.e. two territories away) and strangers, based on olfactory scent samples including information on social status (i.e. dominant or sub-dominant) and sex of the intruder. Our results show that male residents showed a “nasty neighbour” response towards sub-dominant distant neighbours. These findings highlight the sensitivity of territorial mammals to the familiarity and social status of intruders.

Interspecific territoriality despite vocal divergence in two sympatric Laterallus crakes

Territoriality is a widespread behavioral phenomenon that functions for partitioning space and defending resources. Birds tend to defend territories against homospecific individuals through long-distance acoustic signals, but some species also exhibit interspecific territoriality. Two main hypotheses could explain interspecific territoriality mediated by long-distance acoustic signals: (1) misidentification of heterospecifics as homospecifics (misdirected aggression), or (2) recognition of heterospecifics as threats (purposeful aggression). The sympatric Red-and-white crake (Laterallus leucopyrrhus) and the Rufous-sided crake (L. melanophaius) are reciprocally territorial, but the mechanism underlying this interspecific territoriality is not known. We assessed the similarity of territorial long-distance acoustic signals (duet trills) between these crakes in comparison to more closely related species: Red-and-white vs. Rufous-faced crake (L. xenopterus) and Rufous-sided vs. White-throated crake (L. albigularis). Duet trills are two-parted, beginning with soft initial notes audible at close range and followed by a loud-trilled portion audible at long range. We ran univariate comparisons (Kruskal–Wallis), assessed overlap in multivariate acoustic space (PCA), and calculated vocal similarities (cluster analysis; Euclidean distances). The loud-trilled portions of the interspecifically territorial Red-and-white and Rufous-sided crakes occupied completely non-overlapping acoustic spaces, and were not grouped together by vocal similarity. Their territorial signals were more similar to those of their closest relatives, than between them. Soft initial notes of duet trills were in general very different between species, and their general structure matched the phylogenetic relationships. We found no evidence for strong character convergence and partial phylogenetic conservatism in signal explained overall similarities in vocalizations among species. The highly divergent vocalizations of Red-and-white and Rufous-sided crakes in conjunction with their interspecific territorial responses suggest that recognition of heterospecifics as threats, and not misidentification of heterospecifics as homospecifics, mediates their vocal responses. Our study adds evidence showing that interspecific territoriality represents purposeful heterospecific aggression and is not the product of misdirected homospecific aggression.

Subspecies status and methods explain strength of response to local versus foreign song by oscine birds in meta-analysis

To understand the implications of geographical variation in vocal culture in songbirds, researchers have often compared territorial responses to playback of local songs versus responses to playback of songs from ‘foreign’ conspecifics. This body of work has the potential to help us move towards a general understanding of factors driving divergence in signal recognition. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of 57 playback studies to explain variation in strength of response to local versus foreign songs. Studies with incomplete reporting of results had elevated effects due to selective reporting. Studies that used small numbers of stimuli as exemplars (pseudoreplication) had more variable effects than studies without severe pseudoreplication. Whether or not we controlled for pseudoreplication, we found greater response to playback of local song than to foreign song. In investigating potential biological drivers of the variation in strength of experimental effects, we found that the difference in territorial response to local versus foreign song was stronger if the foreign song was recorded from another subspecies than if the foreign song was recorded from the same subspecies as the focal individuals. Indexes of risk of accidental response to heterospecific song did not coherently explain response to foreign conspecific songs, nor did factors expected to influence individual experience with foreign conspecific songs. Thus, although oscine songbirds clearly react more aggressively to local song than to foreign song and variation in the strength of this effect is influenced by methodological choices and subspecies status, considerable variation in the strength of response to local versus foreign song playback remains to be explained.

Territorial responses to song components in a suboscine, the vermilion flycatcher

Vermilion flycatchers songs are composed of two acoustically different parts: a first part (FP) containing a variable number of introductory elements, and a second part (SP) composed of four elements. Previous work suggests that the FP is important for territorial competition and that it conveys information on threat level. By exposing free-living males to playbacks of complete songs (CS’s), FP’s and SP’s, we evaluated the relative contribution of each song part in males’ territorial responses. Males called in response to all three treatments, suggesting each song component is important for territorial competition. Males’ call response did not differ toward CS’s and FP’s, and toward CS’s and SP’s (although a non-significant tendency was found for SP’s to elicit a weaker response than CS’s), but it was greater toward FP’s than toward SP’s. These results, coupled with previous work, further support the idea that the FP plays a special role during territorial competition and may give information on level of threat. We further discuss our result in terms of mechanistic and functional hypotheses.

Mating and/or social system to explain territorial responses: a comment on Christensen and Radford

Mating and/or social system to explain territorial responses: a comment on Christensen and Radford