Terrestrial Frog Research Articles

Frog hepatic health and metal pollution: An assemblage-level approach in a hotspot in southeastern Brazil.

Chemical pollutants include the harmful effects of various substances on soils, water bodies, and biodiversity. Amphibians are one of the most endangered groups ofvertebrates and are impacted by chemical pollutants in various ways due to their complex life cycles. Since trace pollutant concentrations vary across environments, different frog ecomorphs (classified by their microhabitat use) may have different exposures. We aimed to determine the association between frog ecomorphs and the occurrence of histopathological hepatic lesions (HHLs) as an indicator of contaminant exposure. We focused on small forest streams near a large urban region in Brazil, heavily polluted in the 1980s. We examined 104 frog specimens from various families. All specimens exhibited HHLs, with melanomacrophages being the most common (n = 99). Arboreal frogs exhibited more vascular congestion, while terrestrial frogs showed structural hepatic damage. Higher cobalt levels were linked to increased liver necrosis in arboreal frogs and structural issues in both arboreal and terrestrial frogs. Cadmium was associated with hepatitis in terrestrial frogs. Although metal levels had no significant effects on rheophilic frogs, the prevalence of hepatitis and necrosis indicated complex exposure pathways. Iron and aluminum were linked to fewer lesions in rheophilic frogs, suggesting resilience. The high prevalence of HHLs signals an ongoing issue, with variations among ecomorphs suggesting differential exposure to pollutantsand posinga complex challenge for community conservation.

Trophic stoichiometry of macroelements and metals in a terrestrial food web

In order to understand the transfer of macroelements and toxic metals in the terrestrial food web, barn swallows, terrestrial frogs, and insects were collected from farmlands in the Leizhou Peninsula, and analyzed for macroelements carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S) and trace metals nickel (Ni), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg). The multi-element ecological stoichiometry was discussed to trace the food web flow of nutrients and toxicants. The percentage contents of C, N, P, and S were 35.43–59.91%, 6.89–12.11%, 0.49–4.66%, and 0.44–2.19%, respectively. The concentrations of Ni, Zn, Se, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb, and Hg were 0.163–116 mg/kg, 38.7–227 mg/kg, 0.0453–3.82 mg/kg, 3.11–141 mg/kg, not detected—79.6 mg/kg, 0.0203–0.358 mg/kg, 0.148–4.57 mg/kg, and 0.00159–1.46 mg/kg, respectively. Organisms at high trophic levels had higher contents of N, P, and S, and lower contents of C. Significant correlations were observed between δ15N and ratios of C: N, C: P, C: S, N: P, N: S, and S: P, indicating selective transfer of biogenic elements for predators in the terrestrial food web. Most metals including Ni, Zn, Se, Cu, Cr, Pb, and Hg had biomagnification factors and trophic magnification factors higher than 1, because the whole body of organisms rather than tissues were used. The negative correlations between the detoxification ratios of Se: X (each toxic metal) and metal concentrations suggest potential adverse effect of metals on terrestrial organisms.

Flexible oviposition behavior enabled the evolution of terrestrial reproduction

Among vertebrates, nearly all oviparous animals are considered to have either obligate aquatic or terrestrial oviposition, with eggs that are specialized for developing in those environments. The terrestrial environment has considerably more oxygen but is dry and thus presents both opportunities and challenges for developing embryos, particularly those adapted for aquatic development. Here, we present evidence from field experiments examining egg-laying behavior, egg size, and egg jelly function of 13 species of Central and South American treefrogs in the genus Dendropsophus, which demonstrates that flexible oviposition (individuals laying eggs both in and out of water) and eggs capable of both aquatic and terrestrial development are the likely factors which enable the transition from aquatic to terrestrial reproduction. Nearly half of the species we studied had previously undescribed degrees of flexible oviposition. Species with obligate terrestrial reproduction have larger eggs than species with aquatic reproduction, and species with flexible reproduction have eggs of intermediate sizes. Obligate terrestrial breeding frogs also have egg masses that absorb water more quickly than those with flexible oviposition. We also examined eight populations of a single species, Dendropsophus ebraccatus, and document substantial intraspecific variation in terrestrial oviposition; populations in rainy, stable climates lay fewer eggs in water than those in drier areas. However, no differences in egg size were found, supporting the idea that the behavioral component of oviposition evolves before other adaptations associated with obligate terrestrial reproduction. Collectively, these data demonstrate the key role that behavior can have in facilitating major evolutionary transitions.

Barking up the wrong frog: global prevalence of misdirected amplexus in anuran amphibians

Abstract Reproduction is an energy-expensive life process in many organisms, and accurate conspecific recognition is crucial to successful reproduction. Nonetheless, misdirected attempts at amplexus towards heterospecifics appear to be common in many anuran amphibians. Such reproductive interference can have significant ecological and evolutionary consequences, but its prevalence remains unknown. Here, we compile a global dataset of anuran misdirected amplexus and test how phylogenetic relatedness, ecological niche, breeding phenology, and geography influence the prevalence of anuran misdirected amplexus. We find misdirected amplexus to be significantly higher among more closely related heterospecific pairs than between random pairs, but still occurred between species of different families. Misdirected amplexus was also significantly more common in arboreal and terrestrial anurans, and among species pairs with similar body sizes or with similar microhabitat use. We also show that misdirected amplexus is significantly more common among explosive breeders compared with prolonged breeders and is more prevalent in temperate regions compared with the tropics. Overall, we show that misdirected amplexus among anuran amphibians is not a rare phenomenon and that its prevalence is influenced by evolutionary relatedness, microhabitat use, ecological similarity, and breeding phenology. These interactions have the potential to cause species decline, hence understanding them is crucial.

Runway extinction in terrestrial toads (Rhinella arenarum): Instrumental or Pavlovian?

Instrumental appetitive extinction involves the reduction of a previously reinforced response when its occurrence is no longer rewarded. Two experiments with terrestrial toads (Rhinella arenarum) tested whether the occurrence of a nonreinforced response is necessary for response extinction by varying the time of exposure to nonrewarded goal-box stimuli across groups. In Experiment 1, toads that received the same acquisition training (15 sessions, 1 session/day, 300 s of access to water in the goal box) were randomly assigned to two groups. In Group 600 (n=12), animals spent 600 s in the goal box in 8 daily extinction sessions (water present but inaccessible). In Group 0 (n=11), toads performed the runway response (i.e., walking from the start to the goal box) but were removed as soon as they entered the goal box, thus having minimal exposure to nonrewarded goal-box stimuli. The runway response was weakened in Group 600 across extinction trials, but exhibited little change in Group 0. In Experiment 2, toads were randomly assigned to two groups after the same acquisition training. Group 0 (n=7) was treated the same as Group 0 in the previous experiment. In Group RI (retention interval, n=7), toads remained in their home cage for 13 days. Finally, all animals received 4 extinction sessions with 300 s in the empty goal box. There was little behavioral change in Group 0 during the 13 sessions with minimal exposure to the goal box. In extinction, both groups reduced their runway response at similar rates. Although the procedures were instrumental, extinction of the runway response in toads can be accounted for in terms of a Pavlovian approach response to stimuli paired with reward and nonreward in the goal box.

Elevated ammonia cues hatching in red-eyed treefrogs: A mechanism for escape from drying eggs.

Egg dehydration can kill terrestrial frog embryos, and this threat is increasing with climate change and deforestation. In several lineages that independently evolved terrestrial eggs, and retained aquatic tadpoles, embryos accelerate hatching to escape from drying eggs, entering the water earlier and less developed. However, the cues that stimulate drying-induced early hatching are unknown. Ammonia is a toxic, water-soluble metabolic waste that accumulates within eggs as embryos develop and concentrates as eggs dehydrate. Thus, increasing ammonia concentration may be a direct threat to embryos in drying eggs. We hypothesized that it could serve as a cue, stimulating embryos to hatch and escape. The embryos of red-eyed treefrogs, Agalychnis callidryas, hatch early to escape from many threats, including dehydration, and are known to use mechanosensory, hypoxia, and light cues. To test if they also use high ammonia as a cue to hatch, we exposed stage-matched pairs of hatching-competent, well-hydrated sibling embryos to ammonia and control solutions in shallow water baths and recorded their behavior. Control embryos remained unhatched while ammonia-exposed embryos showed a rapid, strong hatching response; 95% hatched, on average in under 15 min. This demonstrates that elevated ammonia can serve as a hatching cue for A. callidryas embryos. This finding is a key step in understanding the mechanisms that enable terrestrial frog embryos to escape from egg drying, opening new possibilities for integrative and comparative studies on this growing threat.

Transcriptomic profiling of Rana [Lithobates] catesbeiana back skin during natural and thyroid hormone-induced metamorphosis under different temperature regimes with particular emphasis on innate immune system components

As amphibians undergo thyroid hormone (TH)-dependent metamorphosis from an aquatic tadpole to the terrestrial frog, their innate immune system must adapt to the new environment. Skin is a primary line of defense, yet this organ undergoes extensive remodelling during metamorphosis and how it responds to TH is poorly understood. Temperature modulation, which regulates metamorphic timing, is a unique way to uncover early TH-induced transcriptomic events. Metamorphosis of premetamorphic tadpoles is induced by exogenous TH administration at 24 °C but is paused at 5 °C. However, at 5 °C a “molecular memory” of TH exposure is retained that results in an accelerated metamorphosis upon shifting to 24 °C. We used RNA-sequencing to identify changes in Rana (Lithobates) catesbeiana back skin gene expression during natural and TH-induced metamorphosis. During natural metamorphosis, significant differential expression (DE) was observed in >6500 transcripts including classic TH-responsive transcripts (thrb and thibz), heat shock proteins, and innate immune system components: keratins, mucins, and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Premetamorphic tadpoles maintained at 5 °C showed 83 DE transcripts within 48 h after TH administration, including thibz which has previously been identified as a molecular memory component in other tissues. Over 3600 DE transcripts were detected in TH-treated tadpoles at 24 °C or when tadpoles held at 5 °C were shifted to 24 °C. Gene ontology (GO) terms related to transcription, RNA metabolic processes, and translation were enriched in both datasets and immune related GO terms were observed in the temperature-modulated experiment. Our findings have implications on survival as climate change affects amphibia worldwide.

A new species of terrestrial toad of the Rhinellafestae group (Anura, Bufonidae) from the highlands of the Central Cordillera of the Andes of Colombia.

The genus Rhinella (Bufonidae) comprises 92 species of Neotropical toads. In Colombia, Rhinella is represented by 22 recognized species, of which nine belong to the Rhinellafestae group. Over the past decade, there has been increasing evidence of cryptic diversity within this group, particularly in the context of Andean forms. Specimens of Rhinella collected in high Andean forests on both slopes of the Central Cordillera in Colombia belong to an undescribed species, Rhinellakumandaysp. nov. Genetic analyses using the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene indicated that the individuals belong to the festae species group. However, they can be distinguished from other closely related species such as Rhinellaparaguas and Rhinellatenrec by a combination of morphological traits including the presence of tarsal fold, a moderate body size, and substantial genetic divergence in the 16S rRNA gene (> 5%). Through this integrative approach, the specimens from the Central Cordillera of Colombia are considered an evolutionary divergent lineage that is sister to R.paraguas, and described as a new species. Rhinellakumandaysp. nov. is restricted to the Central Cordillera of Colombia inhabiting both slopes in the departments of Caldas and Tolima, in an elevational range between 2420 and 3758 m. With the recognition of this new species, the genus Rhinella now comprises 93 species with 23 of them found in Colombia, and ten species endemic to the country.

A new species of terrestrial foam-nesting frog of the Adenomera simonstuarti complex (Anura, Leptodactylidae) from white-sand forests of central Amazonia, Brazil

By using integrative taxonomy, we describe a new species of terrestrial foam-nesting frog of the genus Adenomera from white-sand forests of the Rio Negro Sustainable Development Reserve, Central Amazonia, Brazil. Within the A. andreae clade, the new species belongs to the A. simonstuarti complex where it is sister to the lineage from the lower Juruá River. The new species is assigned to the genus Adenomera by having adult SVL smaller than 34.1 mm, by its lack of fringing and webbing between toes and by the absence of spines on the thumb of adult males. It differs from other Adenomera by the following combination of characters: antebrachial tubercle absent; toe tips flattened or slightly flattened, with visible expansions; nearly solid, dark-coloured stripe on underside of forearm; single-note advertisement call; notes formed by 11–21 incomplete pulses; call duration varying between 100 and 199 ms; fundamental frequency 1,765–2,239 Hz; dominant frequency 3,448–4,349 Hz; and endotrophic tadpoles with spiracle present and labial teeth absent. Over the last decade, we have inventoried many permanent sampling modules in ombrophilous forests in the Manaus Region and in the Purus-Madeira interfluve, but the new species was found only in the white-sand forest from West Negro-Solimões Interfluve. Adenomerasp. nov. may be endemic to, or at least a specialist in, this environment.

Utilization of temperature-mediated activation of thyroid hormone-induced molecular memory to evaluate early signaling events in the olfactory epithelium of Rana [Lithobates] catesbeiana tadpoles

The amphibian olfactory system is highly distinct between aquatic tadpole and terrestrial frog life stages and therefore must remodel extensively during thyroid hormone (TH)-dependent metamorphosis. Developmentally appropriate functioning of the olfactory epithelium is critical for survival. Previous studies in other Rana [Lithobates] catesbeiana premetamorphic tadpole tissues showed that initiation of TH-induced metamorphosis can be uncoupled from execution of TH-dependent programs by holding tadpoles in the cold rather than at warmer permissive temperatures. TH-exposed tadpoles at the nonpermissive (5 °C) temperature do not undergo metamorphosis but retain a “molecular memory” of TH exposure that is activated upon shift to a permissive warm temperature. Herein, premetamorphic tadpoles were held at permissive (24 °C) or nonpermissive (5 °C) temperatures and injected with 10 pmoles/g body weight 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine (T3) or solvent control. Olfactory epithelium was collected at 48 h post-injection. RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) and reverse transcriptase quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analyses generated differentially expressed transcript profiles of 4328 and 54 contigs for permissive and nonpermissive temperatures, respectively. Translation, rRNA, spliceosome, and proteolytic processes gene ontologies were enriched by T3 treatment at 24 °C while negative regulation of cell proliferation was enriched by T3 at 5 °C. Of note, as found in other tissues, TH-induced basic leucine zipper-containing protein-encoding transcript, thibz, was significantly induced by T3 at both temperatures, suggesting a role in the establishment of molecular memory in the olfactory epithelium. The current study provides critical insights by deconstructing early TH-induced induction of postembryonic processes that may be targets for disruption by environmental contaminants.

Diversification of the terrestrial frog genus Anomaloglossus (Anura, Aromobatidae) in the Guiana Shield proceeded from highlands to lowlands, with successive loss and reacquisition of endotrophy

Two main landscapes emerge from the Guiana Shield: the highlands to the west called the Pantepui region and the Amazonian lowlands to the east, both harbouring numerous endemic species. With 32 currently recognized species, the genus Anomaloglossus stands out among Neotropical frogs as one that diversified only within the Guiana Shield both in the highlands and the lowlands. We present a time-calibrated phylogeny obtained by using combined mitogenomic and nuclear DNA, which suggests that the genus originates from Pantepui where extant lineages started diversifying around 21 Ma, and subsequently (ca. 17 Ma) dispersed during the Miocene Climatic Optimum to the lowlands of the eastern Guiana Shield where the ability to produce endotrophic tadpoles evolved. Further diversification within the lowlands in the A. stepheni group notably led to an evolutionary reversal toward exotrophy in one species group during the late Miocene, followed by reacquisition of endotrophy during the Pleistocene. These successive shifts of reproductive mode seem to have accompanied climatic oscillations. Long dry periods might have triggered evolution of exotrophy, whereas wetter climates favoured endotrophic forms, enabling colonization of terrestrial habitats distant from water. Acquisition, loss, and reacquisition of endotrophy makes Anomaloglossus unique among frogs and may largely explain the current species diversity. The micro evolutionary processes involved in these rapid shifts of reproductive mode remain to be revealed.

A new cryptic species of terrestrial breeding frog of the Pristimantisdanae Group (Anura, Strabomantidae) from montane forests in Ayacucho, Peru.

Based on morphological and molecular characters, we describe a new species of terrestrial breeding frog of the Pristimantisdanae Group from montane forests of La Mar Province, Ayacucho Department in southern Peru, at elevations from 1200 to 2000 m a.s.l. The phylogenetic analysis, based on concatenated sequences of gene fragments of 16S rRNA, RAG1, COI and TYR suggests that the new species is a sister taxon of a clade that includes one undescribed species of Pristimantis from Cusco, Pristimantispharangobates and Pristimantisrhabdolaemus. The new species is most similar to P.rhabdolaemus, which differs by lacking scapular tubercules and by its smaller size (17.0-18.6 mm in males [n = 5], 20.8-25.2 mm in females [n = 5] in the new species vs. 22.8-26.3 mm in males [n = 19], 26.0-31.9 mm in females [n = 30] of P.rhabdolaemus). Additionally, we report the prevalence of Batrachochytriumdendrobatidis (Bd) in this species.

Morphology of gustatory organs of a crocodile newt (genus Tylototriton)

The evolutionary causes behind the development of taste discs (TDs), recognized as the only gustatory organs in metamorphosed Batrachia (Caudata and Anura), have yet to be determined. Taste buds (TBs) serve as the gustatory organs in aquatic batrachian larvae, as well as in both larval and adult caecilians (Gymnophiona) inhabiting either aquatic environments or moist terrestrial habitats. We describe the morphology of gustatory organs of adult crocodile newts (Tylototriton cf. verrucosus, Salamandridae, Caudata). Crocodile newts are semi-aquatic and exhibit increased specialization towards an aquatic feeding, distinguishing it from most members of the subfamily Pleurodelinae. Our findings confirm that TDs serve as the gustatory organs in adult T. cf. verrucosus, similarly to many batrachians. We also determined the density and sizes of TDs’ sensory zones on the tongue and palate of T. cf. verrucosus, which differs from Batrachia. In terms of micro-morphology, two types of gustatory cells (GCs) were identified in the gustatory epithelium of T. cf. verrucosus. Our literature analysis suggests that TDs were larger in anurans compared to caudate amphibians, but were also larger in aquatic/semi-aquatic than in terrestrial anurans.

A new high elevation species of Oreophryne Boettger (Anura: Microhylidae) from Sulawesi, Indonesia.

We examined the morphology of 50 specimens of Sulawesian Oreophryne and recognize a distinct, undescribed species. Based on morphological data and supported with phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, it is herein described and named as Oreophryne riyantoi sp. nov. The new species is diagnosed by having a combination of rounded snout in dorsal and lateral view, indistinct tympanum, narrow interorbital distance, small hands, small terminal discs on fingers and toes, toes without webbing, short legs, and dorsal surfaces of head, body and limbs irregularly tuberculated in life. It was found in leaf litter on the forest floor in extremely wet primary montane forest on Mount Mekongga at an altitude of 2528 m asl. The forest-dwelling habit of this terrestrial frog is unusual because other terrestrial Oreophryne occuring at high-altitude live in open grassy or fern dominated meadows. Four endemic species of Oreophryne are now known from Sulawesi. However, herpetological research activities, including high elevation surveys and additional taxonomic work, are necessary to achieve a comprehensive understanding of Oreophryne diversity and phylogeography in Sulawesi.

Two new species of terrestrial frogs of the Pristimantisgladiator complex (Anura, Strabomantidae) from the Ecuadorian Andes, with insights on their biogeography and skull morphology.

The explosive diversity of rainfrogs (Pristimantis spp) reaches its highest levels in the mountains of the Tropical Andes, with remarkable cryptic species mainly in unexplored areas of Ecuador. Based on phylogenetics, morphometric traits, skull osteology and bioacoustics, we describe two new species of Pristimantis, previously confused with Pristimantisgladiator, that belong to the subgenus Trachyphrynus traditionally known as the Pristimantismyersi species group. The two new taxa are closely related, but have allopatric distributions. We discuss the importance of the Quijos and Pastaza River valleys in the diversification along Amazonian slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes.

Use of dead tree-fern trunks as oviposition sites by the terrestrial breeding frog Leiopelma archeyi

Use of dead tree-fern trunks as oviposition sites by the terrestrial breeding frog Leiopelma archeyi

Differential effect of dehydration on the voluntary activity of a diurnal toad

Anuran amphibians' ability to maintain their activity at high temperatures or low humidity depends on their capacity to face dehydration, especially when they display diurnal and terrestrial life habits. Melanophryniscus rubriventris is a diurnal and terrestrial toad from humid Yungas Andean forests that breeds in temporary ponds. It is exposed to the recurrent risk of dehydration because of pond desiccations during the breeding season. Here, we study how M. rubriventris males behaviorally respond to dehydration by measuring their voluntary activity under an ex-situ experiment. Toads with different hydration levels were exposed to a circular track for voluntary activity measurements. Dehydrated males of M. rubriventris toads did not adopt a water-conserving posture staying active during the test and increasing walking under severe dehydration. Certain tolerance to dehydration would allow performing daily activities under challenging diurnal conditions. The increased walking under severe dehydration suggests water or shelter-seeking behavior that would be crucial for diurnal and terrestrial toads to overcome the unpredictable hydric environment during the breeding season.

Effects of Development on Bone Mineral Density and Mechanical Properties in the Aquatic Frog, Xenopus Laevis, and a Terrestrial Frog, Lithobates Catesbianus.

The limb bones of vertebrates have a critical role in supporting the weight of the body and transmitting forces that power locomotion. The loads that limb bones experience can vary in association with a range of factors, including locomotor environment or developmental stage. Limbed vertebrates that are habitually found in environments with low locomotor loads (e.g., water) might be predicted to also exhibit limb bones with less elevated mechanical properties, such as yield stiffness and yield stress. Frogs provide a distinctive case, in which these ideas can be tested as they experience changes in both locomotor style and habitat as they develop. However, while many frog taxa shift from aquatic to terrestrial habitats as they metamorphose, some lineages, such as pipids, maintain an aquatic lifestyle even after metamorphosis, providing a comparative framework for the effects of habitat shifts on developing limbs in vertebrates. This study compares the material composition and mechanical properties of the femur between frog species that are aquatic specialists (Xenopus laevis) vs generalists that spend considerable time both on land and in water (Lithobates catesbeianus) as they transition from metamorphic tadpoles to fully grown adults. MicroCT scanning was used to determine changes in bone density related to developmental stage and hindlimb use during swimming. Microindentation was then used to collect hardness values from the cortical bone of each femur, which was used to evaluate bone material properties. We found that aquatic frogs had less overall bone mineral density (BMD) than terrestrial frogs and that BMD was more elevated in the cortical region of the diaphysis than trabeculae and distal and proximal epiphyses. Despite its less elevated BMD, bone mechanical properties were not significantly different in aquatic specialist X. laevis than in more terrestrial L. catesbeianus. Our results suggest that the limb bones of aquatic frogs may experience compensatory effects through development to offset their lower BMD. Furthermore, changes in bone density and material properties across development may help to explain some of the differences in locomotor performance found between aquatic and terrestrial metamorphic frogs, providing insight into how environmental factors might correlate with bone ossification.

Locomotion and Biomechanical Adaptations in Hind Limb Muscles of Three Mexican Anuran Species

Anurans are anatomically built for jumping, requiring the muscles to contract to generate sufficient mechanical force to launch their bodies. A lot of energy is needed in the hind limbs, where the majority of the force is produced, whereas the front legs and both girdles serve mainly to support the frog's weight at rest as well as to absorb the shock of landing. Different species of anurans have different locomotion mechanisms, evidenced by comparing the mechanical contractile properties of hind limb muscles. In this study, we compared two muscles in arboreal (Agalychnis dacnicolor), terrestrial (Incilius marmoreus), and aquatic (Lithobates sierramadrensis) species of Mexican anurans. We performed low frequency in situ stimulations of the muscles and found that A. dacnicolor showed higher stresses than L. sierramadrensis and I. marmoreus in the two studied muscles, the cruralis and the gastrocnemius. Regarding the cruralis, the stress generated by the aquatic and terrestrial anurans was up to 23% less than that generated by the arboreal anuran. There was also a difference of up to 30% in the ratio of performance between low frequencies and twitch in L. sierramadrensis compared to the other anurans. These differences in muscle physiology suggest adaptive differences among species, although more comprehensive studies are needed to corroborate this hypothesis.

A new species of frog (Terrarana, Strabomantidae, Phrynopus) from the Peruvian Andean Grasslands

We describe a new terrestrial frog from the puna grasslands adjacent to the Mantaro dry valley in southern Peru. Phrynopus apumantarumsp. nov. is similar in appearence to P. bufoides but is differentiable by lacking discoidal fold and enlarged warts on dorsum, lacking a prominent post ocular fold and having canthal and post ocular stripe. Lastly, we propose to place the new species under the Vulnerable (VU) category of the IUCN Red List, due its small distribution and habitat loss recorded at the type locality.