Ternary Fuels Research Articles

Evaluation of Statistical and Machine Learning Analysis on CRDI Engine using Ternary Fuel doped with Cerium Oxide Nanoadditives

At present, diesel engines are confronted with the formidable task of reconciling aggressive emission regulations with the preservation of intended engine performance. In order to tackle this concern, India can implement a comprehensive strategy that includes waste reduction, recycling programs, and the innovative use of waste-to-energy technologies. The potential synergistic effects of combining fuel mixtures with cerium oxide nanoparticles in CRDI diesel engines remain unexplored. This study employs response surface methodology and MLP regression to investigate these effects. This study explores the experimental design includes variation in blend ratios of karanja biodiesel (upto 20 %), compression ratios (18–22), and injection pressure (400–1200 bar), as well as CeO2 nanoparticle concentrations (50–150 ppm) using 10 % biobutanol. A combination of response surface methodology (RSM) and artificial neural network (ANN) techniques is used to assess and optimise the influence of diverse process parameters on engine responses. The machine learning processor (MLP) regressor model is more capable of forecasting engine responses than RSM modelling, as it has lower MAE, RMSE, and higher R2 values. According to the study, the best blend ratio, CR, Injection Pressure, and CeO2 concentration for the best performance and lowest emissions are 9.97 % biodiesel blend, CR of 20, an injection pressure of 797.4 bar, and CeO2 nanoparticle concentration of 100.1 ppm. The MAE value of the MLP regressor-based model ranged from 0.0011 to 0.0119. In terms of RMSE, MLP regressor-based model outputs are within reasonable boundaries. This study highlights the optimization of engine operating parameters and the application of nanotechnology in biodiesel blends. These findings can lead to the development of durable and eco-friendly fuel alternatives for internal combustion engines, promoting sustainable transportation.

Experimental investigation of NOx emission control using carbon nanotube additives and EGR configuration on CRDI engine fueled with ternary fuel

This study aims to investigate the impact of the combined effects of carbon nanotubes and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) of a common rail direct injection (CRDI) engine fueled with ternary fuels. Three rates of EGR (0%, 10%, and 20%) were used at a standard injection timing of 23° before Top Dead Centre (bTDC). This study involves substituting diesel with biofuels, reducing oxides of nitrogen and soot emissions by 30–40%. The experimental investigation involves the exploration of combustion, exhaust emissions, and performance parameters for a single-cylinder CRDI engine using ternary fuels, which consist of diesel, biodiesel, and bioethanol by volume %. At full load with 20% EGR, the experimental analysis indicated a 2% decrease in BTE, a 3.33% increase in BSFC, and a 3.16% increase in BSEC across the blends in performance. In terms of combustion analysis, results show a 5.25 bar in-cylinder pressure drop, 4.14% reduction in HRR, and 12.62% drop in MGT. However, in terms of emissions, 20% EGR yielded the most favorable results, showing a 62.94% reduction in NOx emissions across all blends, albeit accompanied by a 13.89% increase in hydrocarbons (HCs) and 5% rise in carbon monoxide at full load. The 20% EGR rate effectively minimized NOx emissions while slightly impacting HC and CO emissions.

Impact of injection pressure on the performance, emissions, and combustion of a common rail direct injection engine fueled with quaternary blends

The scarcity and rising costs of fossil fuels, coupled with increasing pollution levels, have prompted the exploration of innovative biofuel blends. While binary and ternary fuels have been studied extensively in proportions of 5–20%, replacing up to 30–40% of fossil fuel dependency without significant engine modifications remains a challenge. One potential solution is to investigate an optimal quaternary blend (QB) through experimental methods. This study investigates the impact of increased injection pressure (IOP) and quaternary fuel blends on a common rail direct injection (CRDI) engine's performance and emissions. Different blends, including diesel fuel, vegetable oil, mahua methyl ester and normal-butanol, were tested to replace 30–40% of diesel and enhance combustion, reduce exhaust emissions and improve overall performance. Experiments used a 1-cylinder CRDI engine at high IOPs (400, 500, 600 and 700 bar). Results at 600 bar IOP showed that the optimal blend, QB3–QB4, increased brake thermal efficiency (BTE) by 9% and reduced brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) by approximately 11% compared to other blends. Emissions at 600 bar included a 16% reduction in hydrocarbons (HC) and a 24% decrease in carbon monoxide (CO) at full load. However, nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions slightly increased with higher IOP. Significantly employing the QB3–QB4 blend at 600 bar improved control over HC, CO and smoke emissions. Overall, performance was enhanced and comparable to conventional diesel fuel, with only a minor increase in NOx emissions.

Performance, combustion and emission reduction characteristics of Metal-based silicon dioxide nanoparticle additives included in ternary fuel (diesel-SMME-iso butanol) on diesel engine

Biodiesel has long been recognized as a viable alternative energy source. In order to enhance the quality, and performance of biodiesel-diesel fuel blends while reducing air pollution from combustion, additives must be employed. The present research aims to focus on the addition of SiO2 novel nanoparticles (at a concentration of 30, 60, and 90 mg/L) in the ternary fuel (TF) blend (75% of Diesel+ 15% of Sea Mango Methyl Ester (SMME15) + 10% of iso-Butanol on a volume basis) to determine engine performance, combustion, and emission characteristics of a 1-cylinder, direct injection, liquid-cooled, diesel engine. In addition to this, a stability analysis for the prepared samples was also carried out as per the ASTM standard. From the investigation, it was observed that, when the nanoparticles mixed with ternary fuel (i.e., TFSi60), the brake thermal efficiency (BTE), In-cylinder pressure (ICP), and net heat release rate (NHRR) were improved by about 10.09, 17.4, and 10.73 % respectively. Whereas the brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) (19.13%) and hazardous pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO) (20.06%), unburnt hydrocarbons (UHC) (13.9%), nitrogen oxides (NOx) (11.3%), and smoke (11.2%) were significantly decreased. From the above observations, it is concluded that using a ternary fuel blend with nano additives improves engine performance and combustion while lowering toxic emissions.

An experimental and kinetic modeling study on the autoignition characteristics of ammonia-based ternary fuels under reflected shock wave conditions

Ammonia has received considerable attention as a renewable and carbon-free fuel in the context of global carbon neutrality. The high-temperature autoignition characteristics of NH3-H2-DME binary and ternary blended fuels were investigated using a shock tube experiment under conditions of T = 1300–2000 K, p = 0.14, 1.0 MPa, and ϕ = 0.5, 1.0, 2.0. The experiment focused on the effect of the proportion of H2 + DME as the binary active fuel on the ignition delay time reduction rate of pure NH3 blended fuel under various operating conditions. The experimental results showed that the composition of binary active fuels affects the ignition-promoting effect of the active fuel. H2 + DME (1:1) could result in a greater reduction in activation energy for the blended fuels, and the effectiveness of different of active fuels varies considerably depending on the operating conditions. Furthermore, a model for NH3-H2-DME fuels was developed, and the mechanism of action of H2 + DME (1:1) and H2 as active fuels on the ignition characteristics of the blended fuel was thoroughly investigated. Chemical kinetic analysis showed that one of the most important factors for promoting ignition by H2 + DME (1:1) and H2 is the alteration of the pathways for generating reactive H radicals in the initial stage of the reaction, which accelerates the chain reactions to facilitate ignition.

Droplet Combustion Behavior and Spray Characteristics of Diesel–Ethanol–Jatropha Oil Ternary Fuel Blends Under High-Pressure Evaporating Conditions

Abstract This study investigates the behavior of a single droplet exposed to high-temperature ambient air and macroscopic spray characteristics of various ternary blends of diesel–ethanol–jatropha oil. The experiments on single droplet are performed at ambient pressure and high temperature. The spray experiments are performed under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions, similar to those of a diesel engine in-cylinder air at the time of fuel injection for three blends. The D50E35J15 has exhibited micro-explosion behavior; D50E30J20, which has shown puffing, and D60E20J20, which has demonstrated both micro-explosion and puffing during single droplet experiments, are selected for spray experiments. A constant volume spray chamber with optical access equipped with an electric heater was used to study evaporating spray characteristics of the blends at 5 MPa and 900 K. The spray experiments have shown that the ternary fuel blends have higher liquid penetration as compared to that of diesel due to the higher boiling point of jatropha oil. The variation in the spray cone angle between the different blends was found to be insignificant and within the measurement’s uncertainty limits. Thus, the blends which have exhibited micro-explosion and puffing in droplet experiments have not affected the macroscopic spray characteristics at higher ambient pressures.

Droplet evaporation characteristics of hydrogenated biodiesel-ethanol-diesel ternary fuel

ABSTRACT A multi-component blend of highly volatile ethanol with low volatile hydrogenated biodiesel and diesel is the subject of study. The internal vapor bubble dynamics and evaporation characteristics of individual droplets at high temperatures were investigated. The evaporation characteristics of droplet normalized square diameter and droplet lifetime of the blends of hydrogenated biodiesel, ethanol, and diesel were captured by means of the hanging droplet method and high-speed microscopic imaging in a constant temperature heating furnace. It is revealed that the rise in ambient temperature contributes to increasing the evaporation rate of fuel droplets and intensifies the micro explosion during evaporation and shortens the evaporation of droplets to a certain extent; Compared to diesel, the inhibition effect of evaporation is stronger with the increase of hydrogenated biodiesel in binary fuels and compared with binary fuels, ethanol in ternary fuels promotes micro explosions and shortens droplet evaporation; The droplet evaporation of binary fuels shows three typical phases of ethanol domination, ethanol, and diesel co-domination and co-evaporation of all three in sequence.

A Neo Emission Reduction Approach for Minimizing Atmospheric Air Pollutants Using Ternary Fuel with Pentanol and Seaweed Anti-Oxidant in Multi-Cylinder Diesel Engine

<p>This research examines the scope for reducing the air pollution caused by the transportation sector through the infusion of biofuel and antioxidants ensuring the partial replacement of conventional fuel. A four-stroke, direct-injection, multi-cylinder and constant-speed diesel engine was employed for the experimental analysis. The ternary fuel blend with a composition of 70% diesel fuel, 20% rubber seed oil and 10% of pentanol and sea weed extract in different ratios were blended to form B20, B20A1, B20A2 and B20A3. The experimental results showed smoke and carbon monoxide reduced by 4.71%, unburned hydrocarbons by 2.2 %. The NOx emission which was slightly higher compared to diesel but not higher than B20 for the blend B20A2 by 5%. The brake thermal efficiency was increased by 3.71% when compared to diesel fuel. Consequently, the B20A2 (5% seaweed and 5% pentanol additive with 70% diesel and 20% of rubber seed methyl ester oil) was found to be an environmentally biodegradable gasoline with the best emission properties. The study findings are quite promising for future which seeks towards zero emission with optimum quantity of biofuel to replace diesel.</p>

Effects of hydrogen mixing ratio on combustion and emissions of natural gas‐diesel dual fuel engine with high natural gas substitution rate

AbstractIn order to explore the feasibility of natural gas (NG)/diesel dual‐fuel engine with high NG substitution rate under medium and low load, the effects of hydrogen (H2) on the performance and emissions of the engine are studied numerically. The baseline engine is a four‐cylinder turbocharged diesel engine, which is modified into a diesel‐Natural Gas‐Hydrogen ternary fuels engine with port‐injected H2 and NG fuels and direct‐injected diesel fuel. The simulation is performed using GT‐Power software, and numerical results are validated with the experimental data. The percentage of diesel fuel is set at 10% and 20% (by energy). The engine speed decreases from high speed to medium speed and finally to low speed. The engine load decreases from medium load to low load. The H2 mixing ratio increases from 10% to 50%. The results show that, with the increase of H2 mixing ratio, the peak cylinder pressure (PCP), the peak cylinder temperature (PCT), the heat release rate (HRR) and the maximum pressure rise rate (MPRR) increase, while the indicated thermal efficiency (ITE) decreases under all working conditions. Among them, the MPRR increases by 4%~13% at medium load and 1%~2% at low load, but it does not exceed 0.6 MPa/ (°) CA. The indicated thermal efficiency decreases by 1%~4% at medium and low load. In terms of emissions, the carbon monoxide (CO) and the hydrocarbons (HC) decrease by 34%~43%, but the nitrogen oxide (NOX) increases by 58%~73%.

Understanding the performance, emissions, and combustion behaviors of a DI diesel engine using alcohol/hemp seed oil biodiesel/diesel fuel ternary blends: Influence of long-chain alcohol type and concentration

In this study, it was aimed to examine the influences of biodiesel–diesel-higher alcohol (1-pentanol, 1-hexanol, and 1-heptanol) blends on the performance, emission and combustion behaviors of a single-cylinder diesel engine. The tests were performed at a fixed speed of 1500 rpm and variable loads (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%). For the tests, 80% diesel and 20% hemp seed oil biodiesel were blended and called as B20. Biodiesel fuel was produced by transesterification from hemp seed oil in the presence of methanol and potassium hydroxide for the preparation of B20 binary test fuel and other ternary fuels. Furthermore, nine ternary blend fuels [20% HSOB + 70%, 60% and 50% diesel, respectively + 10%, 20% and 30% higher alcohol (pentanol, hexanol and heptanol) respectively] were prepared. The calculations made with the experimental data revealed that the minimum brake specific energy consumption values were 12,48 MJ/kW h, 13,06 MJ/kW h, 13,27 MJ/kW h, 13,35 MJ/kW h, 13,47 MJ/kW h, and 13,59 MJ/kW h, respectively, for diesel fuel at full load, for fuels B20, B20Hx10, B20Hp10, B20Hx20 and B20Pe10, the maximum brake thermal efficiency values were obtained as 28.85%, 27.56%, 27.14%, 26.97%, 26.73% and 26.49%, respectively, for the same fuels at the same load. The increment in higher alcohol concentration in the blend delayed start of combustion and therefore the ignition delay period was prolonged. In the fuel line pressure data, changes were observed depending on the amount, viscosity and density of the fuel. Furthermore, B20Hx10 and B20Hp10 fuels gave the maximum in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate, average gas temperature and pressure rise rate values after diesel and biodiesel. The addition of biodiesel and higher alcohol to diesel fuel resulted in a decrease in NOX, CO and unburned HC and smoke emissions and an increase in CO2. NOX, CO and unburned HC values of higher alcohol blended fuels at full load showed lower results, between 3.04–22.24%, 22.85–56.35% and 5.44–22.83%, respectively, compared to diesel fuel. It can be concluded that the use of hemp seed oil biodiesel and higher alcohol in the diesel engine will make a significant contribution to the reduction of NOX emissions.

SIMULTANEOUS REDUCTION OF NOX AND SMOKE EMISSIONS IN GASOLINE-ETHANOL BLENDED RCCI ENGINE WITH BIOGAS AS A TERNARY FUEL

SIMULTANEOUS REDUCTION OF NOX AND SMOKE EMISSIONS IN GASOLINE-ETHANOL BLENDED RCCI ENGINE WITH BIOGAS AS A TERNARY FUEL

Energy, Emissions and Exergy Analyses of Ethanol-Biodiesel-Coconut Oil Ternary Fuel Blends and Comparative Assessment of Their Performance in Compression Ignition Engines

The demands on future energy conversion technologies are becoming increasingly stringent. Biofuels, which are considered to have a critical role in meeting growing energy needs, must find increasing avenues for compliance. Accordingly, ternary fuel blends have received significant attention because their physiochemical properties can be very similar to diesel, while overcoming some challenges associated with traditional biofuel use. Consequently, this work assesses the use of alcohol-biodiesel-vegetable oil blends in Compression Ignition (CI) engines. Three ethanol-biodiesel-vegetable oil blends were developed using 10%, 20% and 30% alcohol and their performances were compared to diesel and neat coconut oil. These blends were tested in a single cylinder diesel engine and their performances assessed using energy, emissions and exergy analyses. The results indicated that the blends had better brake thermal efficiency (BTE) values than diesel at high to medium loads, with the E30 blend having the highest BTE value of 31% at full load conditions as compared to 28.9% for diesel. The blends were also found to be comparable to diesel based on a First Law energy analysis. Additionally, it was found that the blends had better nitric oxides (NO) emission levels than diesel; at full load conditions, the E30 blend had the lowest value of 281 ppm as compared to diesel having a value of 299 ppm. However, they were found to have comparable levels for the other emissions characteristics that were examined. Further, the Second Law analyses indicated that the blends made better use of their fuel energy potential and thus, can be considered as a more suitable fuel for CI engine combustion. Collectively, the results suggest that the ternary blends are a viable candidate for future energy conversion via CI engines. Keywords: Ternary blends; ethanol; coconut oil; CI engines; exergy analysis; alternative fuels

Experimental investigation of a novel quaternary blend for CRDI engine: performance, emission, and combustion characteristics

ABSTRACT The shortage-inflation of fossil fuels and aggravation of pollution intensity have initiated the search for innovative biofuel blends. Binary and Ternary fuels are studied for a long time. The use of biodiesel/vegetable oil up to 5–20% can replace fossil fuel with little modification in engine. However, to replace fossil fuel dependence up to 30–40% with little or no modification in engines is a challenge to researcher. This can be approached to evaluate a novel biofuel mix pattern called optimum Quaternary Blend by the experimental investigation. The main objective of the present research is to replace conventional Diesel with biofuels 30–40% with innovative fuel mix and lesser NOx-soot emission. In view of this, experimentally investigated combustion, emission, and performance behavior of single cylinder Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) engine fueled by quaternary blends combination of diesel (60–70 vol %), vegetable oil (Cotton Seed Oil – 5 vol% fixed), biodiesel (Mahua Biodiesel 5–25 vol %), and bio-alcohol (n-butanol 10–25 vol %). Further, to compare engine characteristics with D100% and D50B50%. Engine performance measures like brake thermal efficiency, specific energy consumption, emissions, and combustion characteristics such as rate of pressure rise (RPRR), combustion duration, CA50, CA90, mean gas temperature, combustion-chamber pressure, and net heat release rate are studied. It is noted that Diesel 60%, cotton seed oil 5% with mahua biodiesel 15–20%, and n-butanol 20–15% showed superior quaternary blend among all fuels. This optimum quaternary blend QB3-QB4 showed relatively higher brake thermal efficiency 8% more at lower specific energy consumption 10 MJ/kg about 29% less compared to other blends. Also, controlled combustion with rate of pressure rise 8.6 bar/deg CA about 14% less compared to other fuels. The NOx 10% less and smoke 2% less reported by optimum quaternary blends QB3 compared to other blends. However, CO emissions are noted least with marginal penalty in HC emissions.

Box-Behnken Response Surface Methodology Based Multi-Objective Optimization on Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition Engine Characteristics Powered With Ternary Fuel

Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine the reactivity controlled compression ignition (RCCI) engine combustion characteristics using jatropha oil blended with diesel as the high reactivity and n-amyl alcohol as the low reactivity fuel in various proportions by volume. Response surface methodology (RSM) is adopted to forecast the operating parameters such as fuel injection timing (FIT), fuel injection pressure (FIP), and engine load. This ideal model is used to obtain the maximum combustion pressure and reduce the emission of unburnt hydrocarbon (HC) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) for different fuel blends. For an RCCI engine fueled with B20/1-pentanol fuel, the impact of various factors such as engine load, FIT, and FIP are analyzed based on an L20 orthogonal array. With the help of the results obtained from experiments, various models were developed and validated. The ideal engine parameters found out were 71% of engine load, FIP of 400 bar, and 27 °bTDC, and under this configuration, the maximum cylinder pressure is achieved. The ternary fuel develops higher maximum pressures of combustion than that of pure diesel at higher loading conditions, pressures of fuel injection, and advanced injection timings. At lower loading conditions, fuel injection pressures and ignition delay are noticed, whereas peak pressure decreases. Also, analysis of variance (ANOVA), a statistically valid test, is used to develop a regression model, and the test results indicate that the regression model is appropriate for the following R2 values obtained.

An Experimental and a Kinetic Modelling Study of Ethanol/Acetone/Ethyl Acetate Mixtures

With the world’s energy resources decreasing, ethanol/acetone/ethyl acetate mixed fuel has the potential as a fossil fuel alternative or oxygenated fuel additive. In this work, the burning characteristics of ethanol/acetone/ethyl acetate mixed fuels including 3 pure fuels, 9 binary fuels, and 7 ternary fuels were studied at a temperature of 358 K, the pressure of 1 bar, and the equivalence ratios of 0.7 to 1.4 in the constant volume combustion chamber (CVCC). The burning velocities of the ternary fuels were compared at ϕ = 0.8, 1.0, and 1.4. The results show that the laminar burning velocities of the mixed fuels are affected by the contents of ethanol, acetone, and ethyl acetate. The Markstein length, Markstein number, and burning flux were also analyzed in this paper. Furthermore, a detailed chemical mechanism comprising 506 species and 2809 reactions was reduced to a skeletal mechanism including 98 species and 642 reactions, using the directed relation graph with error propagation (DRGEP). The experimental and the simulated laminar burning velocities were compared. The results of laminar burning velocities show that the relative deviation of ETEAAC 112 is approximately 17.5%. The sensitivity coefficients, flame structure, and reaction paths of ethyl acetate were investigated with the skeletal and the detailed mechanisms. It is found that the key reaction path is retained in the skeletal mechanism.

Analysis of particle size diameter (PSD), mass fraction burnt (MFB) and particulate number (PN) emissions in a diesel engine powered by diesel/biodiesel/n-amyl alcohol blends

Depletion of fossil fuel resources along with surge in pollution levels were jointly contributing to the era of quest for novel fuel source in recent years. For the past two decades, the research in engines were vividly focused on alternative fuels based on alcohol and various vegetable oil sources. Binary fuels (diesel with alcohol and biodiesel with alcohol) and ternary fuels (diesel/biodiesel/alcohol) were much popular in present years because biodiesel helps in prevention of mixture/phase stratification. Hence, the current research work is focussed to analyse the performance, combustion and emission profiles of diesel engine fueled with diesel/biodiesel/n-amyl alcohol blends. With increasing concentration of n-amyl alcohol (from 5% to 20%). Results were much interesting as the key performance indicators such as ID (Ignition delay), BTE and AFR were drastically improved. Simultaneous reductions in CO, HC and smoke opacity were found along with marginal improvements in NOx emissions. Maximum peak pressure, improved HRR and CHRR were found for biodiesel/diesel/n-amyl20 blend and higher MFB (Mass Fraction Burnt) is also reported for the same blend. Overall, an addition of 20% n-amyl alcohol in biodiesel diesel blends can be a possible substitute fuel for existing unmodified diesel engine.

25-Pin metallic fuel performance benchmark case based on the EBR-II X430 experiments series

A metallic fuel benchmark case was developed for the fuel performance code BISON based on 25 uranium-zirconium and uranium-plutonium-zirconium pins of the Experimental Breeder Reactor II X430 experiment series. Results of the benchmarks were compared with measurements and calculations made at the time of the experiment as well as subsequent measurements reported in 2019. The comparisons were used to quantify the accuracy of the BISON predictions and to identify patterns in the BISON differences. BISON predicted burnup , plenum pressure, and fission gas release fractions accurately. BISON temperature predictions were somewhat cooler than the temperatures determined at the time of the experiment but appeared to be reasonably accurate considering uncertainties in the legacy temperature calculations, uncertainties in the legacy linear heat rate calculations, and the high sensitivities of the BISON-predicted temperatures to BISON inputs. Fuel axial elongation predictions had errors correlated to fuel composition; BISON tended to underpredict the elongation of binary fuels and overpredict the elongation of ternary fuels. BISON cladding radial dilation predictions were also significantly lower than legacy PIE measurements. Recommendations were made to improve the BISON fuel gaseous swelling model to account for fuel composition, to add additional capabilities to the coolant channel temperature model to ease benchmark development, and to continue developing benchmark cases based on a wide range of experiments in several reactors. Once a wide array of benchmarks is developed, an attempt can be made to enhance or calibrate BISON models to improve the cladding dilation predictions.

Pressure Tuned Structural, Electronic and Elastic Properties of U3Si2C2: A First Principles Study

U3Si2C2 is expected to be a new nuclear fuel as a ternary compound of uranium, silicon and carbon. However, the relevant research on U3Si2C2 under accident conditions is rarely reported. Hence it is necessary to explore the service behavior of the potential U-Si-C ternary nuclear fuel in extreme environments. In this work, the structural characteristics, electronic behaviors and mechanical properties of U3Si2C2, such as stable crystalline structures, density of states, charge distributions, electron localization function, electronic thermal conductivity and elastic modulus under extreme high pressure are calculated by density functional theory. The calculation results show that the lattice volume sharply increases when the external stress reached 9.8 GPa. Ionic and metallic nature coexist as to the bonding characteristics of U3Si2C2, and the ionic takes the dominant position in bonding. The toughness of U3Si2C2 is predicted to be better compared to U3Si2. Our theoretical investigation may help with the application of U3Si2C2-based fuel and the design of ternary uranium fuels.

Using low viscosity micro-emulsification fuels composed of waste frying oil-diesel fuel-higher bio-alcohols in a turbocharged-CRDI diesel engine

In this experimental study, low viscosity (<5 mm2.s−1) ternary micro-emulsification fuels contain 50% petro-diesel, 30% waste frying oil and 20% n-butanol or iso-propanol. To observe the effects of ternary fuels on the characteristics of a turbocharged, common rail direct injection diesel engine, the engine tests were performed at the fixed engine speed of 2000 rpm and five different engine loads (BMEP: 3.3–10.0 bar). The results show that brake specific fuel consumption increased about 18% while thermal efficiency decreased about 7% when using ternary fuel. Although the start and end of injection timings of all test fuels were very close to each other at the low engine loads, both pilot and main injection timings of ternary fuels were relatively earlier compared to petro-diesel. Injection amount and rates were higher for ternary fuels at all engine loads. Up to 6.6 bar of engine load, the maximum cylinder gas pressures (Pmax) of petro-diesel were higher, but those of ternary micro-emulsification fuels were higher at the engine loads of 8.3 bar and 10.0 bar. Particularly at high engine loads, combustion of petro-diesel started and ended at comparatively later crank angles, so combustion durations were longer than those of ternary fuels. The results show that petro-diesel fuel provided better CO, THC and NOx emissions, whereas CO2 emissions of test fuels were close to each other. When the higher bio-alcohols were compared to each other, it was seen that the ternary fuel with iso-propanol had better results than the ternary fuel with n-butanol.

Investigation of the Characteristics of Ternary Fuel Efficiency and Combustion on Dual Fuel Engines

Investigation of the Characteristics of Ternary Fuel Efficiency and Combustion on Dual Fuel Engines