Terminal Repeat Retrotransposable Elements Research Articles

Grafting vigour is associated with DNA de-methylation in eggplant

In horticulture, grafting is a popular technique used to combine positive traits from two different plants. This is achieved by joining the plant top part (scion) onto a rootstock which contains the stem and roots. Rootstocks can provide resistance to stress and increase plant production, but despite their wide use, the biological mechanisms driving rootstock-induced alterations of the scion phenotype remain largely unknown. Given that epigenetics plays a relevant role during distance signalling in plants, we studied the genome-wide DNA methylation changes induced in eggplant (Solanum melongena) scion using two interspecific rootstocks to increase vigour. We found that vigour was associated with a change in scion gene expression and a genome-wide hypomethylation in the CHH context. Interestingly, this hypomethylation correlated with the downregulation of younger and potentially more active long terminal repeat retrotransposable elements (LTR-TEs), suggesting that graft-induced epigenetic modifications are associated with both physiological and molecular phenotypes in grafted plants. Our results indicate that the enhanced vigour induced by heterografting in eggplant is associated with epigenetic modifications, as also observed in some heterotic hybrids.

Characterization of the restriction enzyme‐like endonuclease encoded by the Entamoeba histolytica non‐long terminal repeat retrotransposon EhLINE1

The genome of the human pathogen Entamoeba histolytica, a primitive protist, contains non-long terminal repeat retrotransposable elements called EhLINEs. These encode reverse transcriptase and endonuclease required for retrotransposition. The endonuclease shows sequence similarity with bacterial restriction endonucleases. Here we report the salient enzymatic features of one such endonuclease. The kinetics of an EhLINE1-encoded endonuclease catalyzed reaction, determined under steady-state and single-turnover conditions, revealed a significant burst phase followed by a slower steady-state phase, indicating that release of product could be the slower step in this reaction. For circular supercoiled DNA the K(m) was 2.6 x 10(-8) M and the k(cat) was 1.6 x 10(-2) sec(-1). For linear E. histolytica DNA substrate the K(m) and k(cat) values were 1.3 x 10(-8) M and 2.2 x 10(-4) sec(-1) respectively. Single-turnover reaction kinetics suggested a noncooperative mode of hydrolysis. The enzyme behaved as a monomer. While Mg(2+) was required for activity, 60% activity was seen with Mn(2+) and none with other divalent metal ions. Substitution of PDX(12-14)D (a metal-binding motif) with PAX(12-14)D caused local conformational change in the protein tertiary structure, which could contribute to reduced enzyme activity in the mutated protein. The protein underwent conformational change upon the addition of DNA, which is consistent with the known behavior of restriction endonucleases. The similarities with bacterial restriction endonucleases suggest that the EhLINE1-encoded endonuclease was possibly acquired from bacteria through horizontal gene transfer. The loss of strict sequence specificity for nicking may have been subsequently selected to facilitate spread of the retrotransposon to intergenic regions of the E. histolytica genome.

Rapid and Differential Proliferation of the Ty3-Gypsy LTR Retrotransposon Atlantys in the Genus Oryza

Abstract Here, we present the results of a comprehensive study of the distribution, evolution, heterogeneity, and phylogenetic relationships of the Ty3-Gypsy Atlantys long terminal repeat retrotransposable element family in Oryza. Atlantys element-related sequences make up a significant fraction of the genomes of species from the Officinalis complex as well as the Oryza ridleyi and O. granulata genomes. The proliferation of Atlantys elements, in many cases, took place after respective speciation events occurred. Most of the retrotranspositional events occurred within the last three million years. Atlantys is an ancient and ubiquitous component of the genus Oryza and has made significant contributions to genome size variation across the genus. Its structure is unusual when compared to other Ty3-Gypsy elements and its proliferation in the different Oryza species has been rapid and differential.

Rapid R2 Retrotransposition Leads to the Loss of Previously Inserted Copies via Large Deletions of the rDNA Locus

R2 non-long terminal repeat retrotransposable elements insert specifically into the 28S rRNA genes of a wide range of animals. These elements maintain long-term stable relationships with the host genome. By scoring the variation present at the 5' ends of individual R2 copies, lines of Drosophila simulans have been identified with high rates of R2 retrotransposition. Comparing the R2 elements present in the parents with that of their progeny after 1 or 30 generations in this report revealed that retrotransposition rates were higher through the female germ line compared with the male germ line. In addition, most events in females occur late in germ line development. Surprisingly, the gain of new R2 insertions by retrotranspositions was counterbalanced by deletions of preexisting R2 insertions. These deletions occurred by the loss of large segments of the rDNA units that contained on average an estimated 15 R2 elements. When monitored over single generations, the rate of loss of preexisting elements was higher than the rate of new insertions. However, the chromosomes with the largest deletions appear to be eliminated from the population because the rates of R2 insertions and deletions after 30 generations were approximately equal. These findings suggest that high rates of R2 retrotransposition do not necessarily lead to dramatic increases in the level of R2 insertions in the rDNA locus but can lead to a more rapid turnover of rDNA units.

Identification of the endonuclease domain encoded by R2 and other site-specific, non-long terminal repeat retrotransposable elements.

The non-long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposon, R2, encodes a sequence-specific endonuclease responsible for its insertion at a unique site in the 28S rRNA genes of arthropods. Although most non-LTR retrotransposons encode an apurinic-like endonuclease upstream of a common reverse transcriptase domain, R2 and many other site-specific non-LTR elements do not (CRE1 and 2, SLACS, CZAR, Dong, R4). Sequence comparison of these site-specific elements has revealed that the region downstream of their reverse transcriptase domain is conserved and shares sequence features with various prokaryotic restriction endonucleases. In particular, these non-LTR elements have a Lys/Arg-Pro-Asp-X12-14aa-Asp/Glu motif known to lie near the scissile phosphodiester bonds in the protein-DNA complexes of restriction enzymes. Site-directed mutagenesis of the R2 protein was used to provide evidence that this motif is also part of the active site of the endonuclease encoded by this element. Mutations of this motif eliminate both DNA-cleavage activities of the R2 protein: first-strand cleavage in which the exposed 3' end is used to prime reverse transcription of the RNA template and second-strand cleavage, which occurs after reverse transcription. The general organization of the R2 protein appears similar to the type IIS restriction enzyme, FokI, in which specific DNA binding is controlled by a separate domain located amino terminal to the cleavage domain. Previous phylogenetic analysis of their reverse transcriptase domains has indicated that the non-LTR elements identified here as containing restriction-like endonucleases are the oldest lineages of non-LTR elements, suggesting a scenario for the evolution of non-LTR elements.

Patterns of nucleotide substitution in Drosophila and mammalian genomes.

To estimate patterns of molecular evolution of unconstrained DNA sequences, we used maximum parsimony to separate phylogenetic trees of a non-long terminal repeat retrotransposable element into either internal branches, representing mainly the constrained evolution of active lineages, or into terminal branches, representing mainly nonfunctional "dead-on-arrival" copies that are unconstrained by selection and evolve as pseudogenes. The pattern of nucleotide substitutions in unconstrained sequences is expected to be congruent with the pattern of point mutation. We examined the retrotransposon Helena in the Drosophila virilis species group (subgenus Drosophila) and the Drosophila melanogaster species subgroup (subgenus Sophophora). The patterns of point mutation are indistinguishable, suggesting considerable stability over evolutionary time (40-60 million years). The relative frequencies of different point mutations are unequal, but the "transition bias" results largely from an approximately 2-fold excess of G.C to A.T substitutions. Spontaneous mutation is biased toward A.T base pairs, with an expected mutational equilibrium of approximately 65% A + T (quite similar to that of long introns). These data also enable the first detailed comparison of patterns of point mutations in Drosophila and mammals. Although the patterns are different, all of the statistical significance comes from a much greater rate of G.C to A.T substitution in mammals, probably because of methylated cytosine "hotspots." When the G.C to A.T substitutions are discounted, the remaining differences are considerably reduced and not statistically significant.

RNA-induced changes in the activity of the endonuclease encoded by the R2 retrotransposable element.

R2 is a non-long terminal repeat retrotransposable element that inserts itself site specifically in the 28S rRNA genes of arthropods. The 120-kDa protein encoded by R2 has been shown to cleave one strand of the 28S gene at the target site and to use the 3' hydroxyl group generated from this nick to prime reverse transcription of its own RNA. This reaction has been termed target-primed reverse transcription (TPRT). Cleavage of the second DNA strand can occur in the presence or absence of reverse transcription but requires RNA. In this study, more sensitive in vitro assays have enabled further characterization of these reactions. R2 protein is capable of only a single round of TPRT because, once bound to the target DNA, it does not dissociate at physiological ionic strengths. Analysis of the role of RNA in the DNA cleavage reaction has revealed that the binding of RNA induces the R2 protein to form a multimeric complex. While larger complexes may form, the active component appears to be a dimer based on sedimentation studies and the change in stoichiometry of the cleavage reaction from a 1:1 ratio of protein subunit to target DNA in the absence of RNA to a 2:1 ratio of subunit to DNA target in the presence of RNA. Nonspecific RNA can also induce formation of this RNA-protein (RNP) complex, but the association of the protein with R2 RNA is stronger as revealed by its stability in 0.4 M NaCl. Finally, formation of the RNP complex gives rise to a 150-fold increase in the ability of the R2 endonuclease to find the target site. The specificity of this RNP complex is sufficiently great that it can find the 28S gene target site and conduct the TPRT reaction with total genomic DNA.

Downstream 28S gene sequences on the RNA template affect the choice of primer and the accuracy of initiation by the R2 reverse transcriptase.

R2 non-long terminal repeat retrotransposable elements insert at a unique site in the 28S rRNA genes of insects. The protein encoded by the single open reading frame of R2 is capable of conducting the initial steps of its integration in vitro. The protein nicks the noncoding strand of the 28S target DNA (the strand which serves as a template for RNA synthesis) and uses the 3' hydroxyl group exposed by this nick to prime reverse transcription of the R2 RNA template. This target-primed reverse transcription (TPRT) reaction requires that the RNA template contains the 250-nucleotide 3' untranslated region of the R2 element. If this RNA template ends at the precise 3' end of the R2 element, then extra nucleotides, which we refer to as nontemplated nucleotides, are added to the target before cDNA synthesis. The presence of downstream 28S gene sequences on the RNA template reduces the total efficiency but eliminates these nontemplated additions, resulting in nearly 90% of all TPRT products reproducing the 3' junctions seen in vivo. Templates with 5 to 10 nucleotides of the 28S sequence are used most efficiently in this in vitro TPRT reaction. The requirement for downstream 28S rRNA sequences probably explains why the R2 elements of most insects differ from the majority of non-long terminal repeat retrotransposons in that they do not contain an A-rich repeat at their 3' junction with the target DNA. The presence of downstream sequences on these in vitro R2 templates also revealed that the R2 reverse transcriptase can prime cDNA synthesis by using the 3' end of another RNA molecule. This RNA-primed cDNA synthesis is not based on sequence complementarity between the RNA primer and the R2 template. The ability to use the 3' end of a noncomplementary RNA molecule has also been seen with the reverse transcriptase of the mitochondrial Mauriceville plasmid of Neurospora crassa.

Analysis of the 5' junctions of R2 insertions with the 28S gene: implications for non-LTR retrotransposition.

R2 elements are non-long terminal repeat retrotransposable elements that insert into 28S rRNA genes of most insect species. The single open reading frame of R2 encodes a protein with both endonuclease activity, which cleaves the target site, and reverse transcriptase activity, which uses this cleavage to prime reverse transcription. This target-primed reverse transcription mechanism is also used by group II introns. Little is known of the mechanism by which the 5' end of R2 is integrated after reverse transcription. We have determined the 5' junction sequence of 94 R2 elements from 14 different species of Drosophila. Only 37% of the full-length elements contained precise 5' junctions; the remainder contained deletions of the 28S gene and/or insertions of additional sequences. Because the 5' junctions of truncated copies were similar to full-length elements, no sequences at the 5' end of R2 appear to be required for element integration. A model in which the R2 reverse transcriptase is capable of switching templates from the R2 RNA transcript to the upstream 28S gene can best explain the observed 5' junction sequences. This template jumping is analogous to the template switching of retroviral reverse transcriptases during formation of the double-stranded integration products.

RNA template requirements for target DNA-primed reverse transcription by the R2 retrotransposable element.

R2 is a non-long terminal repeat-retrotransposable element that inserts specifically in the 28S rRNA gene of most insects. The single protein encoded by R2 has been shown to contain both site-specific endonuclease and reverse transcriptase activities. Integration of the element involves cleavage of one strand of the 28S target DNA and the utilization of the exposed 3' hydroxyl group to prime the reverse transcription of the R2 RNA transcript. We have characterized the RNA requirement of this target DNA-primed reverse transcription reaction and found that the 250 nucleotides corresponding to the 3' untranslated region of the R2 transcript were necessary and sufficient for the reaction. To investigate the sequence requirements at the site of reverse transcription initiation, a series of RNA templates that contained substitutions and deletions at the extreme 3' end of the RNA were tested. The R2 templates used most efficiently had 3' ends which corresponded to the precise boundary of the R2 element with the 28S gene found in vivo. Transcripts containing short polyadenylated tails (8 nucleotides) were not utilized efficiently. R2 RNAs that were truncated at their 3' ends by 3 to 6 nucleotides were used less efficiently as templates and then only after the R2 reverse transcriptase had added extra, apparently nontemplated, nucleotides to the target DNA. The ability of the reverse transcriptase to add additional nucleotides to the target DNA before engaging the RNA template might be a mechanism for the generation of poly(A) or simple repeat sequences found at the 3' end of most non-long terminal repeat-retrotransposable elements.

Turnover of R1 (type I) and R2 (type II) retrotransposable elements in the ribosomal DNA of Drosophila melanogaster.

R1 and R2 are distantly related non-long terminal repeat retrotransposable elements each of which inserts into a specific site in the 28S rRNA genes of most insects. We have analyzed aspects of R1 and R2 abundance and sequence variation in 27 geographical isolates of Drosophila melanogaster. The fraction of 28S rRNA genes containing these elements varied greatly between strains, 17-67% for R1 elements and 2-28% for R2 elements. The total percentage of the rDNA repeats inserted ranged from 32 to 77%. The fraction of the rDNA repeats that contained both of these elements suggested that R1 and R2 exhibit neither an inhibition of nor preference for insertion into a 28S gene already containing the other type of element. Based on the conservation of restriction sites in the elements of all strains, and sequence analysis of individual elements from three strains, nucleotide divergence is very low for R1 and R2 elements within or between strains (less than 0.6%). This sequence uniformity is the expected result of the forces of concerted evolution (unequal crossovers and gene conversion) which act on the rRNA genes themselves. Evidence for the role of retrotransposition in the turnover of R1 and R2 was obtained by using naturally occurring 5' length polymorphisms of the elements as markers for independent transposition events. The pattern of these different length 5' truncations of R1 and R2 was found to be diverse and unique to most strains analyzed. Because recombination can only, with time, amplify or eliminate those length variants already present, the diversity found in each strain suggests that retrotransposition has played a critical role in maintaining these elements in the rDNA repeats of D. melanogaster.