Temporal Distance Research Articles

Optimizing Multi-Echelon Delivery Routes for Perishable Goods with Time Constraints

As the logistics industry modernizes, living standards improve, and consumption patterns shift, the demand for fresh food continues to grow, making cold chain logistics for perishable goods a critical component in ensuring food quality and safety. However, the presence of both soft and hard time windows among demand nodes can complicate the single-network distribution of perishable goods. In response to these challenges, this paper proposes an optimization model for multi-distribution center perishable goods delivery, considering both one-echelon and two-echelon network joint distributions. The model aims to minimize total costs, including transportation, fixed, refrigeration, goods damage, and penalty costs, while measuring customer satisfaction by the start time of service at each demand node. A two-stage heuristic algorithm is designed to solve the model. In the first stage, an initial solution is constructed using a greedy approach based on the principles of the k-medoids clustering algorithm, which considers both spatial and temporal distances. In the second stage, the initial routing solution is optimized using a linear programming approach from the Ortools solver combined with an Improved Adaptive Large Neighborhood Search (IALNS) algorithm. The effectiveness of the proposed model and algorithm is validated through a case study analysis. The results demonstrate that the initial solutions obtained through the k-medoids clustering algorithm based on spatio-temporal distance improved the overall cost optimization by 1.85% and 4.74% compared to the other two algorithms. Among the three two-stage heuristic algorithms, the Ortools-IALNS proposed here showed enhancements in the overall cost optimization over the IALNS, with improvements of 3.24%, 1.12%, and 0.41%, respectively. The two-stage heuristic algorithm designed in this study also converged faster than the other two heuristic algorithms, with overall optimization improvements of 1.55% and 1.28%, further validating the superior performance of the proposed heuristic algorithm.

Interpolation methods for spatial distribution of groundwater mapping electrical conductivity

This study was carried out to develop a conceptual framework for determining the best interpolation method which mainly is employed to calculate the variability maps of electrical conductivity (EC) in neighboring regions. The considered case study is parts of the Khorasan Razavi province, Iran (including five aquifers Kashmar, Fariman, Doruneh, Sarakhs and Joveyn). In the first step, the empirical variogram (semi-variogram) was computed for the study area. The methods of the variability of a variable with spatial or temporal distance were considered to measure the semi-variogram function. In the next step, the best variogram model (e.g. spherical, exponential or Gaussian) was considered in the Geographic Information System (GIS) environment and f for the Environmental Sciences (GS+) software. By plotting the semi-variogram in GS+ program based on different method as Global Polynomial Interpolation (GPI), Inverse distance weighing (IDW), Radial basis function (RBF), Kriging method, Global Polynomial Interpolation (GPI), Local Polynomial Interpolation (LPI), the best variogram model fitted to spatial structure of the EC. Finally, by considering the acceptable range for different parameters which impact on EC and evaluating their impacts by scaling, the best interpolation method has been selected for that area for employing their neighborhood basin. Result indicated that the precipitation located within the range of 140 to 180 mm, RBI has the priority. This process is continued for all 14 parameters and eventually one method gets the most points.

Development of an enhanced base unit generation framework for predicting demand in free‐floating micro‐mobility

AbstractAccurate demand forecasting has become increasingly necessary in the burgeoning field of free‐floating micro‐mobility systems. However, for model training, the service area must be divided into specific areal units, which often involves grid‐based methods. Although these methods are feasible and provide a uniform area division, they are highly susceptible to the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP), which is a critical issue in spatial data analysis. Although MAUP can adversely affect predictive model learning, studies addressing this issue are scarce. Therefore, a novel base areal unit generation algorithm is proposed that employs a clustering approach to enhance the prediction accuracy in free‐floating micro‐mobility system demand. The method identifies suitable base areal units by merging smaller ones while considering the similarities in temporal usage patterns and distances between different areas, mitigating the impact of MAUP during model learning. The approach was evaluated using shared e‐scooter data from two cities, Kansas City and Minneapolis, and it was compared to the traditional grid method. The findings indicate that the proposed framework generally improves prediction performance within the newly defined areal units.

EXPRESS: When the future feels closer than the past: An experimental research of nostalgia vs. forestalgia in destination ads

Nostalgia has been a powerful tool to attract travelers to visit tourism destinations. Compared to the extensive attention that nostalgia marketing has received, its counterpart of forestalgia (i.e., future-focused) marketing has received limited attention. The present research is one of the first to compare the effectiveness of nostalgia and forestalgia focused destination advertising messages in attracting travelers’ destination visit intention. Across three experimental studies based on 665 responses from U.S. travelers, the research finds that forestalgia focused destination ads are more effective in enticing travelers compared to nostalgia focused ones. The findings also reveal a significant mediating role of positive emotions and moderating roles of temporal distance and future time perspective. Our research sheds light on extant literature about nostalgia marketing, construal level theory, temporal Doppler effect, and rosy effect. Managerial implications are provided to assist destination management organizations in better capitalizing on both past and future-focused marketing communications.

The Effect of Therapists' Interpersonal Skills on Therapeutic Alliance

Therapists' interpersonal skills play a significant role in outcome differences between therapists. Similarly, the strength of the therapeutic alliance is influenced by therapist characteristics. Therefore, the aim of this study was to capture therapist differences in the alliance and to examine the effect of therapists' interpersonal skills on the therapeutic alliance. Interpersonal skills of 99 incoming therapists were measured in a group discussion using the Therapy-Related Interpersonal Behaviors (TRIB) scale. The therapists treated n=1031 psychotherapy outpatients as part of their clinical training. The alliance was assessed at the end of therapy using the Assessment for Signal Clients (ASC). Hierarchical linear models were used to predict the alliance from interpersonal skills, controlling for other patient and therapist variables. Initial impairment was examined as a moderator of the effect. The therapist effect (TE) on the alliance was 7.3%. Interpersonal skills were a significant predictor of the alliance (b=0.104, p<0.001) and could explain 1.8% of the total variance beyond all control variables. The TE was reduced to 5.7%, meaning that 23.0% of the therapist differences in the alliance could be attributed to interpersonal skills. Although the moderation effect of initial impairment was only marginally significant (b=0.069, p=0.061), the association between interpersonal skills and alliance disappeared with low patient impairment. The TRIB scale can measure interpersonal skills before the start of training. The prediction should be considered in the context of the several years' temporal distance between the measurements of interpersonal skills and the alliance, applicable to the selective sample of therapists chosen for the training. Interpersonal skills can predict the alliance. The influence of therapists' interpersonal skills on the alliance increases with the initial impairment of patients, while there is no significant relationship with low-impaired patients. Using video-based rating systems, interpersonal skills of individual therapists can be measured automatically, therapists with deficits can be identified, and targeted training can be provided.

Metric and temporal relationships in collaborative map drawings

While a number of studies have distinguished spatial and temporal memorization at individual level, none seem to have examined these two memorization modes in collaborative map drawing. After an initial review of the distinctions between spatial and temporal memorization at individual level, and a study of inhibition in collaborative memorization, we present several analyses carried out on 24 collaborative drawings from an urban spatial exploration. We compare metric and temporal measurements on these drawings to identify possible relationships between metric and temporal approaches, depending on whether group members proceeded individually or collectively in the urban exploration prior to the collaborative drawing phase.- Based on 6 landmarks common to all drawings, an initial approach to metric and temporal measurements is carried out by comparing the distances obtained from the graphs created on the drawings, with the temporal measurements deduced from the video recordings. While the metric measures correlate well with the physical space (Google), they neither enable us to observe significant relationships between metric and temporal distances, nor to discriminate sufficiently between the groups.- A second approach has therefore been taken, this time comparing the distances obtained from the starting point of urban exploration with landmarks’ order of appearance in the videos. In this case, the correlations obtained between metric distances and landmarks’ order of appearance prove to be significant for the group that interacted collectively in the urban space, but not for the groups that explored individually. Nevertheless, the group that repeated the collective exploration a month later showed relative independence from metric distances, in favor of a more global representation of the environment.

Exploring the biosynthesis potential of permafrost microbiomes

BackgroundPermafrost microbiomes are of paramount importance for the biogeochemistry of high latitude soils and while endemic biosynthetic domain sequences involved in secondary metabolism have been found in polar surface soils, the biosynthetic potential of permafrost microbiomes remains unexplored. Moreover, the nature of these ecosystems facilitates the unique opportunity to study the distribution and diversity of biosynthetic genes in relic DNA from ancient microbiomes. To explore the biosynthesis potential in permafrost, we used adenylation (AD) domain sequencing to evaluate non-ribosomal peptide (NRP) production in permafrost cores housing microbiomes separated at kilometer and kiloyear scales.ResultsPermafrost microbiomes represented NRP repertoires significantly different from that of temperate soil microbiomes, but as for temperate soils, the estimated domain richness and diversity was strongly correlated to the bacterial taxonomic diversity across locations. Furthermore, we found significant differences in both community composition and AD domain composition across geographical and temporal distances. Overall, the vast majority of biosynthetic domains showed below 90% amino acid similarity to characterized BGCs, confirming the high degree of novelty of NRPs inherent to permafrost microbiomes. Using available metagenomic sequences, we further identified a high biosynthetic diversity beyond NRPs throughout arctic surface soils down to deep and ancient (megayear old) permafrost microbiomes.ConclusionWe have shown that arctic permafrost microbiomes harbor a unique biosynthetic repertoire rich in hitherto undescribed NRPs. This diversity is driven by geographic separation across kilometer scales and by the bacterial taxonomic diversity between microbiomes confined in separate permafrost layers. Hence the permafrost biome represents a unique resource for studying secondary metabolism, and potentially for the discovery of novel drug leads.

When a bleak future comes closer: interaction effects of emotion and temporal distance framing in climate change communication

Given the widespread use of emotional and distance framing in climate change communication, this study investigated how these strategies interact to influence perceptions and behaviors related to climate change. Guided by the Situational Theory of Problem Solving and through an experimental survey, the research revealed that fear-inducing messages led to greater recognition of problems and involvement when combined with short-term temporal frames, compared to hope-inducing messages. These findings suggest that the effects of emotional appeals are conditioned on the temporal distance of the issue highlighted in climate change communication, offering a more nuanced understanding of the differentiated effects of fear and hope appeals and practical insights for crafting persuasive messages.

Construal level theory and online reviews: A search stage perspective

Drawing on Construal Level Theory, we propose that consumer search stage (i.e., screening or selecting), not psychological distance, interacts with review features to influence review helpfulness. Through an online experiment, we test the interaction effects between textual concreteness, review valence and consumer search on review helpfulness at close and far temporal distances. Our findings support a congruency effect between consumer search stage and textual concreteness, showing that positive, abstract reviews are more helpful in the screening stage, while negative, concrete reviews are more helpful in the selection stage. Conversely, temporal distance had a negligible effect. Our results suggest that consumer search stages may confound previous findings on psychological distance and review helpfulness and have practical implications regarding review relevance for consumers.

The Distance Effect in Focus of Attention: Spatial or Temporal Distance?

ABSTRACT Purpose: The benefit of an external focus over an internal focus has been well-established. Within this literature, several studies have documented a distal effect of attentional focus by comparing the efficacy of a proximal and distal external focus. A potential confound is that most distal focus cues direct the performer’s attention to an outcome occurring after the completion of movement, while the proximal cues direct attention to something that occurs during the movement process. This study aims to disentangle whether the distal effect of attentional focus comes from spatial distance (proximal vs. distal) or temporal distance (during vs. after). Method: To test this, we employed a two-handed underhand medicine ball throw for maximum distance with 38 healthy young adults. This study employed five conditions: baseline, internal-during, internal-after, external-during, and external-after focus. Results: The result indicated that both external-during and -after foci elicited a significantly greater throwing distance than internal-during (p = .006) and internal-after (p < .001), where internal-after even significantly underperformed than baseline (p = .02). Conclusion: Our findings indicate that using an outcome cue unrelated to the intended action does not enhance motor performance. Rather, the most effective approach is to use an external cue that represents the action effect either during or after the movement.

Evolutionary origins of temporal discounting: Modeling how time and uncertainty constrain optimal decision-making strategies across taxa.

The propensity of humans and non-human animals to discount future returns for short-term benefits is well established. This contrasts with the ability of organisms to unfold complex developmental sequences over months or years efficiently. Research has focused on various descriptive and predictive parameters of 'temporal discounting' in behavior, and researchers have proposed models to explain temporal preference in terms of fitness-maximizing outcomes. Still, the underlying ultimate cause of this phenomenon has not been deeply explored across taxa. Here, we propose an ultimate (i.e., evolutionary) causal explanation for the selection of temporal discounting largely conserved across taxa. We propose that preference for a short-term reward (e.g., heightened impulsivity) often is less than optimal and likely is the product of constraints imposed on natural selection with respect to predicting events in a temporal framework in the context of future uncertainty. Using a simple Newtonian model for time across a fitness landscape in which movement by organisms is only possible in one direction, we examine several factors that influence the ability of an organism to choose a distant reward over a more temporally proximate reward: including the temporal distance of the far reward, the relative value of the distant reward, and the effect of uncertainty about the value and presence of the distant reward. Our results indicate that an organism may choose a more distant reward, but only if it is not too far into the future and has a substantially higher-value fitness payoff relative to the short-term reward. Notably, any uncertainty about the distant reward made it extremely unlikely for an organism to choose the delayed reward strategy compared to choosing a closer reward, even if the distant reward had a much higher payoff because events that are uncertain are only partially visible to natural selection pressures. The results help explain why natural selection is constrained to promote more optimal behavioral strategies and why it has difficulty selecting a distant reward over a lower-value short-term reward. The degree of uncertainty is an especially salient ecological variable in promoting and preferencing short-term behavioral strategies across taxa. These results further help illustrate why, from an ultimate causal perspective, human and non-human taxa have difficulty making more optimal long-term decisions.

Medial Temporal Lobe Damage Impairs Temporal Integration in Episodic Memory.

Although the role of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) and the hippocampus in episodic memory is well established, there is emerging evidence that these regions play a broader role in cognition, specifically in temporal processing. However, despite strong evidence that the hippocampus plays a critical role in sequential processing, the involvement of the MTL in timing per se is poorly understood. In the present study, we investigated whether patients with MTL damage exhibit differential performance on a temporal distance memory task. Critically, we manipulated context shifts, or boundaries, which have been shown to interfere with associative binding, leading to increases in subjective temporal distance. We predicted that patients with MTL damage would show impaired binding across boundaries and thus fail to show temporal expansion. Consistent with this hypothesis, unilateral patients failed to show a temporal expansion effect, and bilateral patients actually exhibited the reverse effect, suggesting a critical role for the MTL in binding temporal information across boundaries. Furthermore, patients were impaired overall on both the temporal distance memory task and recognition memory, but not on an independent, short-timescale temporal perception task. Interestingly, temporal distance performance could be independently predicted by performance on recognition memory and the short temporal perception task. Together, these data suggest that distinct mnemonic and temporal processes may influence long interval temporal memory and that damage to the MTL may impair the ability to integrate episodic and temporal information in memory.

Gait analysis and clinical outcomes of anterior and lateral approach total hip arthroplasty: A prospective randomized study

Objectives: This study compared the lateral and direct anterior approaches (DAAs) for total hip arthroplasty (THA) regarding gait analysis and post-operative outcomes. Methods: Patients undergoing THA for osteonecrosis or primary osteoarthritis were randomized to either the lateral or DAA. Standardized surgical procedures and implants were used. Gait analysis, including temporal distance parameters, kinetics, and kinematics, was conducted at 6 weeks, 3 months, and 18 months. Results: Thirty-four patients (16 lateral, 18 anterior) participated, with comparable demographics. At 6 weeks, the anterior approach group had significantly higher Harris hip scores, improved gait speed, greater hip extension and external rotation moments, higher peak hip abduction angle, and reduced peak hip extension angle. The lateral approach (LA) group showed decreased hip abduction and internal rotation moments. By 3 and 18 months, outcomes were similar between groups. Conclusion: The anterior approach facilitates faster rehabilitation at 6 weeks, but outcomes converge with the LA by 3 and 18 months postoperatively.

The upper bound of information diffusion in code review

BackgroundCode review, the discussion around a code change among humans, forms a communication network that enables its participants to exchange and spread information. Although reported by qualitative studies, our understanding of the capability of code review as a communication network is still limited.ObjectiveIn this article, we report on a first step towards understanding and evaluating the capability of code review as a communication network by quantifying how fast and how far information can spread through code review: the upper bound of information diffusion in code review.MethodIn an in-silico experiment, we simulate an artificial information diffusion within large (Microsoft), mid-sized (Spotify), and small code review systems (Trivago) modelled as communication networks. We then measure the minimal topological and temporal distances between the participants to quantify how far and how fast information can spread in code review.ResultsAn average code review participants in the small and mid-sized code review systems can spread information to between 72 % and 85 % of all code review participants within four weeks independently of network size and tooling; for the large code review systems, we found an absolute boundary of about 11 000 reachable participants. On average (median), information can spread between two participants in code review in less than five hops and less than five days.ConclusionWe found evidence that the communication network emerging from code review scales well and spreads information fast and broadly, corroborating the findings of prior qualitative work. The study lays the foundation for understanding and improving code review as a communication network.

Long‐term Motion In‐betweening via Keyframe Prediction

AbstractMotion in‐betweening has emerged as a promising approach to enhance the efficiency of motion creation due to its flexibility and time performance. However, previous in‐betweening methods are limited to generating short transitions due to growing pose ambiguity when the number of missing frames increases. This length‐related constraint makes the optimization hard and it further causes another constraint on the target pose, limiting the degrees of freedom for artists to use. In this paper, we introduce a keyframe‐driven approach that effectively solves the pose ambiguity problem, allowing robust in‐betweening performance on various lengths of missing frames. To incorporate keyframe‐driven motion synthesis, we introduce a keyframe score that measures the likelihood of a frame being used as a keyframe as well as an adaptive keyframe selection method that maintains appropriate temporal distances between resulting keyframes. Additionally, we employ phase manifolds to further resolve the pose ambiguity and incorporate trajectory conditions to guide the approximate movement of the character. Comprehensive evaluations, encompassing both quantitative and qualitative analyses, were conducted to compare our method with state‐of‐the‐art in‐betweening approaches across various transition lengths. The code for the paper is available at https://github.com/seokhyeonhong/long-mib

Associations of ocular anterior segment structures with sex and age: the Yamagata study (Funagata).

To investigate the associations of tomographic parameters in anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT) with sex and age in a cohort study. A cohort design. AS-OCT data from 391 Japanese participants aged ≥ 35 years were obtained using swept-source OCT. In the cornea, the keratometric power at the flat (Kf) and steep (Ks) meridians, maximum keratometric power (Kmax), keratometric cylinder, spherical power, regular astigmatism, asymmetry, higher-order irregularity (HOI) from the anterior and posterior surfaces, and the central and thinnest corneal thicknesses were evaluated. Also, anterior chamber depth (ACD), lens thickness, crystalline lens rise (CLR), and nasal and temporal angle opening distances at 500μm from the scleral spur (AOD500) were assessed. Sex differences and age-related changes were analyzed. Women exhibited higher anterior Kf, Ks, and Kmax and lower posterior Kf, Ks, and Kmax than men. The ACD and nasal/temporal AOD500 were shorter in women than in men. The CLR was higher in women, whereas the lens thickness did not differ between the sexes, indicating a more anteriorly positioned lens in women. Age-related changes included increased anterior/posterior HOI, increased lens thickness and CLR resulting in decreased ACD and AOD500. This study reveals sex-related differences in corneal shape, anterior chamber conformation, and lens position, as well as age-related changes in tomographic parameters. ACD, CLR, nasal and temporal AOD500 showed significant sex differences in the 50-70s, whereas lens thickness showed no difference.

What You Perceive Is What You Get: Enhancing Rumor-Combating Effectiveness on Social Media Based on Elaboration Likelihood Model

Rumors spread on social media overshadow the truth and trigger public panic. One effective countermeasure to address this issue is online rumor-combating. However, its effectiveness on social media has not been fully verified. In this study, drawing on construal level theory, we use temporal distance—the time interval between a rumor-combating post being released and receiving responses from social media users—to measure the effectiveness of rumor-combating. We also adopt elaboration likelihood model to explore the factors that could enhance this effectiveness. The empirical results show that perceptible (central route) factors, including the author’s authoritative combating methods, media richness, and positive emotions, are negatively related to temporal distance and are more effective for enhancing rumor-combating effectiveness than imperceptible (peripheral route) factors, such as the author’s influence and activeness. In addition, media richness exerts positive moderating effects on the relationship between perceptible route factors and rumor-combating effectiveness, implying that with the help of images or videos, rumor-combating effectiveness improves. This study addresses the need to enhance the effectiveness of rumor-combating and has practical implications for combating rumors in the social media.

A Lagrangian Model‐Based Analysis of Protist Plankton Variability and Its Impact on Organic Matter Dynamics Along Transit Pathways Through the Fram Strait

AbstractThe Arctic Ocean is characterized by substantial seasonal and inter‐annual variability, of which the sources and impacts are not yet fully understood. Here, we analyze how much of the variability found in in situ observations of biogeochemical and ecological variables collected at the Long‐Term Ecological Research Observatory HAUSGARTEN can be explained by differences in the physical conditions in the water masses passing through the Fram Strait (FS). Employing a size‐based plankton ecosystem model with nine distinct size classes of protist phyto‐ and zooplankton, we simulate standing stocks and fluxes within the nutrient, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and detritus pools in water parcels that follow trajectories tracing the opposing East‐Greenland and West‐Spitsbergen currents through the FS. Our model results agree with in situ observations of biogeochemical tracers, plankton size measurements, climatological data, and remote sensing observations. They show distinct temporal developments in plankton size composition, growth, and export in trajectory ensembles, highlighting how variable physical conditions affect the communities' specific growth histories. Our study indicates that 10%–72% of the variability in upper water column tracer concentrations observed in the FS can be attributed to differences in water parcel trajectories. The maxima of net primary production and vertical export along the trajectories occurred in some (spatial and temporal) distance upstream of the sites of in situ sampling. This study shows that Lagrangian modeling helps clarify complex biogeochemical‐ecological relationships in highly dynamic systems such as the FS, which is urgently needed to understand the role of climate change in the Arctic carbon cycle.

TE-LSTM: A Prediction Model for Temperature Based on Multivariate Time Series Data

In the era of big data, prediction has become a fundamental capability. Current prediction methods primarily focus on sequence elements; however, in multivariate time series forecasting, time is a critical factor that must not be overlooked. While some methods consider time, they often neglect the temporal distance between sequence elements and the predicted target time, a relationship essential for identifying patterns such as periodicity, trends, and other temporal dynamics. Moreover, the extraction of temporal features is often inadequate, and discussions on how to comprehensively leverage temporal data are limited. As a result, model performance can suffer, particularly in prediction tasks with specific time requirements. To address these challenges, we propose a new model, TE-LSTM, based on LSTM, which employs a temporal encoding method to fully extract temporal features. A temporal weighting strategy is also used to optimize the integration of temporal information, capturing the temporal relationship of each element relative to the target element, and integrating it into the LSTM. Additionally, this study examines the impact of different time granularities on the model. Using the Beijing International Airport station as the study area, we applied our method to temperature prediction. Compared to the baseline model, our model showed an improvement of 0.7552% without time granularity, 1.2047% with a time granularity of 3, and 0.0953% when addressing prediction tasks with specific time requirements. The final results demonstrate the superiority of the proposed method and highlight its effectiveness in overcoming the limitations of existing approaches.

Competing construals in advertising: the central role of feeling closer to the brand versus closer to other brand users

PurposeWhile consumer–brand relationships bring to mind commonalities such as shared interests and values, the way consumers construe information can differ depending on the situation and their connections to the brand. This study aims to propose that construal level impacts how consumers process information and looks at how two dimensions of psychological distance affect the persuasiveness of different types of advertising appeals.Design/methodology/approachFour experimental studies test the singular effects that social and temporal distance construals have on the persuasiveness of advertising appeals. This research further investigates whether social distance construals can be situationally primed and matched with advertising appeals to improve willingness to pay. Overall, the combined effects are tested when both dimensions are simultaneously activated, but the valence of the construal levels potentially moves in opposite directions.FindingsStudies 1 and 3 find that matching social distance construals and advertising appeals positively impacts willingness to pay, whereas Study 2 reveals that matching temporal distance construals and advertising appeals also positively effects willingness to pay. Furthermore, Study 4 finds that the social distance dimension has a more dominant impact on willingness to pay, except in near future scenarios when there are combined effects of competing construals.Research limitations/implicationsThis research indicates that initial social distance construals are more salient than subsequent temporal distance construals.Practical implicationsThis study helps marketers to identify the most effective advertising appeals for consumers with different types of relationships and psychological distance construals.Originality/valueThis study contributes to both theory and practice by extending knowledge of which types of construals are more salient when competing construals are triggered and by helping marketers identify the most effective advertising appeals for consumers under these different conditions.