Temperate Region Of Japan Research Articles

Effects of seawater temperature and irradiance on the growth of sporelings of Amphiroa cf. zonata and Corallina berteroi (Corallinales, Rhodophyta) in Japan

ABSTRACTGeniculate coralline algae in temperate waters form dense, carpet-like turfs and are prevalent in intertidal rocky habitats or as understory beneath canopy-forming seaweeds in shallow subtidal zones. Using laboratory cultures, we determined the optimum and vital growth conditions for sporelings of two geniculate species, Amphiroa cf. zonata and Corallina berteroi, which are dominant in temperate waters around Japan. Samples were genetically identified as matching those two species as known from the coasts of Japan and worldwide, respectively. The optimum water temperature range and the upper critical water temperatures for sporeling growth were similar for the two coralline species. The optimum growth temperatures of A. cf. zonata (25–30°C) and C. berteroi (20–25°C) were comparable to those for temperate seaweeds commonly found in the same temperate region of Japan as the study sites. However, the upper critical temperatures for growth (33°C in A. cf. zonata and 32°C in C. berteroi) were higher than what is known for temperate kelps, though similar to those for other macroalgae. Amphiroa cf. zonata in the upper subtidal zone exhibited photoinhibition in conditions of less than 400 µmol photons m–2 s–1, whereas C. berteroi in the intertidal zone did not show such photoinhibition. The difference in irradiance effects upon growth was inferred to be related to the species distributions in their local environments of the coastal zone.

Studies on integrated control system for naturalized morning glories (<i>Ipomoea</i> spp.) in soybean field in temperate regions of Japan

Studies on integrated control system for naturalized morning glories (<i>Ipomoea</i> spp.) in soybean field in temperate regions of Japan

‘Emitawawa’, a new rice cultivar with good properties for rice bread and high grain yield for the warm and temperate regions in Japan

‘Emitawawa’, a new rice cultivar with good properties for rice bread and high grain yield for the warm and temperate regions in Japan

<i>Limnotrachelobdella okae</i> (Hirudinida: Piscicolidae) Parasitic on Big-scaled Redfin, <i>Pseudaspius hakonensis</i> (Cypriniformes: Leuciscidae), in Two Brackish Water Lakes, Hokkaido, Japan

Specimens of the coastal marine fish leech Limnotrachelobdella okae (Moore, 1924) were collected from the pelvic fins and lateral body surface of big-scaled redfin, Pseudaspius hakonensis (Günther, 1877), in two brackish water lakes, Lake Tofutsu and Lake Abashiri, on the Sea of Okhotsk coast, Hokkaido, northern Japan. The external morphology of the specimens is briefly described, and the two lakes represent new locality records for the leech. Similarly to coastal marine waters, inshore brackish water lakes are suggested to be a habitat in which L. okae can complete its life cycle. Seasonal occurrence of the species may differ between subarctic Hokkaido and three temperate regions of Japan (Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu). The role of big-scaled redfin and its congener, Pacific redfin, Pseudaspius brandtii (Dybowski, 1872), in transporting L. okae alive from the coastal sea to brackish and fresh water bodies is discussed in terms of their diadromous migration ecology.

Morphological and molecular assessment of Lithophyllum okamurae with the description of L. neo-okamurae sp. nov. (Corallinales, Rhodophyta)

ABSTRACT Lithophyllum okamurae has been widely reported in the Pacific Ocean with identification based on morpho-anatomical observations. Two infraspecific taxa, L. okamurae f. okamurae and f. angulare, described from Japan, have been recorded in the temperate region of Japan. We assessed branched Lithophyllum samples morphologically referable to L. okamurae using morpho-anatomical data and DNA sequences (psbA, rbcL and partial LSU rDNA) obtained from herbarium specimens, including type material, as well as recently field-collected material in Japan. The molecular analyses showed that these ‘L. okamurae’ samples contained two species: L. okamurae and a cryptic new species which we describe as L. neo-okamurae sp. nov. Because the holotype of L. okamurae f. angulare was conspecific with original material cited in the protologue of L. okamurae, it is a heterotypic synonym of L. okamurae f. okamurae. Lithophyllum okamurae and L. neo-okamurae were morphologically similar in having warty, lumpy and fruticose thalli and in often forming rhodoliths. Lithophyllum okamurae can be morpho-anatomically distinguished from L. neo-okamurae by the thallus with tapering or plate-like protuberances (knobby protuberances in the latter) and by having smaller tetrasporangial conceptacle chambers (167–314 µm; 248–380 µm in L. neo-okamurae). Our LSU rDNA sequence data from L. okamurae f. angulare (=L. okamurae f. okamurae) was identical to that of the type of L. margaritae, which has nomenclatural priority over L. okamurae. However, considering that psbA and rbcL sequences of L. margaritae type material could not be generated in the present study, we refrain, for the moment, from proposing the taxonomic synonymy between these two taxa until the status of L. margaritae and its synonyms from the type locality (Gulf of California) are clarified.

Fatty acid compositions of triacylglycerols in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) seeds with varied seeding dates and nitrogen fertilization in a temperate region of Japan

ABSTRACT We monitored fatty acid compositions of the triacylglycerol (TAG) fractions in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) seeds cultivated in pots with different seeding dates and nitrogen (N) fertilizing conditions in a temperate region Wakayama, Japan. Five flax cultivars were seeded in early and late December 2017, and in late January 2018, and matured in May, June and July in the order of planting. Three types of N fertilizer were applied for plants seeded in January. Fatty acid profiles in seed TAG fractions were varied among the cultivation conditions. A cluster analysis dissected the fatty acid profiles of the same genotype with different seeding dates. Principal component analyses revealed inverse correlations between saturated and unsaturated fatty acid contents, which could be affected by temperature, N fertilization, and genotypic factors. The highest correlation was observed between α-linolenic and oleic acid contents, which showed a strong inverse relationship across genotypes (r= 0.964, n = 15). The ratio of α-linolenic acid content to that of oleic acid in seeds from plants seeded in early December were higher than those seeded on the other two dates across genotypes. We suppose that seeding date and N supply might be crucial determinants of flax lipid quality in temperate regions.

The mycorrhizal community of the epiphytic orchid Thrixspermum japonicum is strongly biased toward a single Ceratobasidiaceae fungus, despite a wide range of fungal partners.

Orchids depend primarily on mycorrhizal fungi to obtain nutrients throughout their life cycle. Epiphytic orchids account for 69% of orchid diversity. The unstable availability of water and nutrients in their arboreal habitats often results in severe water and nutrient stresses. Consequently, mycorrhizal associations may be important for the survival of epiphytic orchids, but our understanding thereof remains limited. Here, we investigated the mycorrhizal community in a single epiphytic orchid species, using more samples than in any previous study. We assessed the mycorrhizal communities of Thrixspermum japonicum, one of the most common epiphytic orchids in the temperate region of Japan. In total, 144 individuals were collected from 28 host tree species at 20 sites across 1300km. The mycorrhizal fungi were identified based on nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer sequences and assigned operational taxonomic units (OTUs) based on 97% sequence similarity. We obtained 24 OTUs; 9 belonged to the Ceratobasidiaceae and 15 to the Tulasnellaceae. These OTUs are widely distributed throughout the phylogenetic trees of the two fungal families. However, a single Ceratobasidiaceae OTU accounted for 49.7% of all fungal sequences and was predominant in samples from 15 host tree species and 12 sites. Our results imply that despite having a broad range of mycorrhizal partners, T. japonicum was predominantly associated with a single fungal taxon at most of the sites among the host-tree species investigated. These findings contribute to elucidating mycorrhizal symbiosis in epiphytic habitats.

Diversity and Geographic Distribution of Ligninolytic Fungi Associated With Castanopsis sieboldii Leaf Litter in Japan.

The diversity and geographic pattern of ligninolytic fungi were investigated within the distribution range of an evergreen tree, Castanopsis sieboldii (Fagaceae), in Japan. Fungal isolates obtained from 18 sites in subtropical and temperate regions in Japan were classified into 50 operational taxonomic units in Ascomycota and Basidiomycota according to the base sequence of the rDNA internal transcribed spacer region. Ordination by nonmetric multidimensional scaling showed the separation of fungal compositions between the study sites which was significantly related to the latitude, longitude, and mean annual temperature (MAT) of the study sites. We applied variation partitioning to separate the magnitude of the climatic, spatial, and leaf property factors and found the roles of MAT and spatial factors in structuring fungal assemblages, suggesting the importance of both niche processes and such non-niche processes as priority effect and dispersal limitation. The bleached area on leaf litter was greater at sites with higher MAT and precipitation located at lower latitudes and at sites where some major ligninolytic fungi occurred at greater relative frequencies, indicating that not only the climatic conditions but also the biogeographic patterns of distribution of ligninolytic fungi influence the decomposition of lignin in leaf litter.

Japan's nationwide long‐term monitoring survey of seaweed communities known as the “Monitoring Sites 1000”: Ten‐year overview and future perspectives

SUMMARY“Monitoring Sites 1000” – Japan's long‐term monitoring survey was established in 2003, based on the Japanese Government policy for the conservation of biodiversity. Ecological surveys have been conducted on various types of ecosystems at approximately 1000 sites in Japan for 15 years now and are planned to be carried out for 100 years. Since 2008, seaweed communities had been monitored at six sites, featuring the kelp (e.g. Saccharina and Ecklonia; Laminariales) and Sargassum (Fucales) communities in the subarctic and temperate regions of Japan. Annual surveys were carried out during the season when these canopy‐forming seaweeds are most abundant. A non‐destructive quadrat sampling method, with permanent quadrats placed along transects perpendicular to the shoreline, was used to determine species composition, coverage, and vertical distribution of seaweeds at these sites; while destructive sampling was done every 5 years to determine biomass. The occurrence of canopy‐forming species Saccharina japonica (var. japonica) and Ecklonia cava have appeared to be stable at the Muroran (southwestern part of Hokkaido Island) and Shimoda (Pacific coast of middle Honshu Island) sites, respectively; whereas the coverage of Ecklonia radicosa (= Eckloniopsis radicosa) at the Satsuma‐Nagashima site in southern part of Kyushu Island was highly variable until its sudden disappearance from the habitat in 2016. Thalli of E. radicosa lost most of their blades through browsing by herbivorous fish, and thus, this may be one of the causes of the decline. A shift in the community structure related to environmental changes had also been observed at some other sites. Pre‐ and post‐disaster data revealed the impact of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami disasters, including a shift in the vertical distribution of Ecklonia bicyclis (= Eisenia bicyclis) to shallower depths at the Shizugawa site in the Pacific coast of northern Honshu Island, due to seafloor subsidence.

Seasonal changes in the occurrence of embolisms among broad-leaved trees in a temperate region

Sap freeze–thaw events are a main determinant of the distribution of broad-leaved woody plants in cool regions but the effect in other climates remains unknown. We used cryoscanning electron microscopy to examine the differences in plant growth patterns based on seasonal variation in xylem water distribution in four broad-leaved species (one ring-porous and three diffuse-porous species) in a temperate region of Japan. Leaf fall was detected in November for the ring-porous species Maackia amurensis Rupr. et Maxim., although embolisms were detected in large earlywood vessels in January of the following year. The percentage of embolisms in latewood vessels varied significantly between years. By contrast, xylem embolisms in diffuse-porous species (deciduous and evergreen) were barely detectable during winter. In one evergreen species, embolisms and refilling were detected in some vessels during the growing season. Based on the variation in the number of freeze–thaw events among years in Asian monsoon forests, we infer that M. amurensis obtained no benefit from extending leaf phenology because of the occurrence of vessel embolisms in winter. On the other hand, the leaf phenologies of deciduous and evergreen diffuse-porous species were less constrained by winter embolisms. Maackia amurensis persists in cool temperate regions by limiting the photosynthetic period.

Effect of photosynthetically active radiation and temperature on the photosynthesis of two heteromorphic life history stages of a temperate edible brown alga, Cladosiphon umezakii (Chordariaceae, Ectocarpales), from Japan

The effect of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and temperature on the photosynthesis of a temperate Japanese edible brown alga, Cladosiphon umezakii (Chordariaceae, Ectocarpales), from Honshu Island, Japan, was determined in the heteromorphic life history stages (macroscopic and microscopic) by using pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM) fluorometry and optical dissolved oxygen sensors. The microscopic stage is well-adapted to relatively low PAR environment, as revealed by its lower maximum net photosynthesis (NPmax), saturation (Ek), and compensation PAR (Ec), and higher value of the initial slope (α) compared to the macroscopic stage. Both stages share similar temperature optima ( $$ {T}_{opt}^{GP} $$ 15.9–25.8 °C for macroscopic stage, 12.6–27.4 °C for microscopic stage), suggesting the possible occurrence of both generations in their habitats throughout the year. While these optimum temperatures are within the range of seawater temperature in the distribution of this species, they are close to the physiological limit of thermal inhibition. Continuous exposures (6 h) to 200 (low) and 1000 (high) μmol photons m−2 s−1 at 8, 16, and 28 °C revealed greater declines in effective quantum yields of photosystem II (ΦPSII) in the microscopic stage, confirming its low PAR adaptation. Low temperature-induced photoinhibition was likewise observed in both stages. Existing farming methods for Japanese Cladosiphon (especially for subtropical Cladosiphon okamuranus from Ryukyu Islands, Japan) may need to be modified to meet the optimum requirements of C. umezakii in the temperate region of Japan.

Seasonal cycle of the nest composition in the Ponerine ant Cryptopone sauteri (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

The annual life history is a basic and important factor in ecological studies on temperate ant species. The biology of Ponerinae species has been studied for many species, but little attention has been paid to their life history. Cryptopone sauteri is one of the most common ants in temperate regions of Japan. However, there is no quantitative information on the life history of this species. We report seasonal changes in brood development, the emergence of reproductives and social structures of C. sauteri. Additionally, we discuss that this species possibly exhibits a polydomous nesting system.

The combined effects of PAR and temperature including the chilling-light stress on the photosynthesis of a temperate brown alga, Sargassum patens (Fucales), based on field and laboratory measurements

The combined effects of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and temperature on the photosynthesis of a temperate Japanese brown alga, Sargassum patens (Fucales), were determined by field and laboratory measurements. Underwater measurements of the natural population of this alga in Kagoshima, Japan, revealed that the effective quantum yield (Φ PSII ) declined with increasing incident PAR, with minimum Φ PSII occurring during noon to early afternoon. Φ PSII recovered in the evening, indicating dynamic photoinhibition. In laboratory experiments, Φ PSII was also negatively correlated with PAR, which decreased after 12 h of continuous exposure to 200 (low) and 1000 (high) μmol photons m−2 s−1 at 8, 20, and 28 °C. Maximum quantum yield (F v /F m ) at 8 °C with low PAR failed to recover after 12 h of dark acclimation, suggesting the influence of low temperature in chronic photoinhibition. Photosynthesis–irradiance (P–E) curves likewise revealed lower net photosynthetic rates and photoinhibition at 8 °C. Gross photosynthesis and dark respiration experiments determined over a range of temperatures (8–40 °C) revealed that the maximum gross photosynthetic rate (GP max) occurred at 26.9 °C. F v /F m after 72 h of temperature exposures was stable at 8–32 °C; but it was deactivated at 36 and 40 °C. This species is well-adapted to the current range of temperature in the temperate region of Japan (7–28 °C). However, the combined effects of low temperature and PAR may influence algal photosynthetic efficiency and so may be limiting at the marginal region of northern distribution of this temperate species.

寒冷地における水稲品種とタイヌビエとの競合関係の定量的評価に関する研究

寒冷地における水稲品種とタイヌビエとの競合関係の定量的評価に関する研究

D-Pinitol in Fabaceae: an Oviposition Stimulant for the Common Grass Yellow Butterfly, Eurema mandarina

The common grass yellow butterfly, Eurema mandarina (formerly Eurema hecabe mandarina) (Lepidoptera, Pieridae), recently has been separated taxonomically from a subtropical population of Eurema hecabe in Japan. This species is widely distributed in the temperate region of Japan, and feeds mainly on various ligneous plants within the Fabaceae. We attempted to identify an oviposition stimulant for E. mandarina from its primary hosts, Albizia julibrissin and Lespedeza cuneata. In both hosts, crude extract and an aqueous fraction elicited oviposition responses from gravid females. A polar subfraction of the aqueous fraction also stimulated high oviposition-stimulatory activity, comparable to the original aqueous fraction, suggesting that E. mandarina females use water-soluble compounds for host recognition. Subsequent activity-directed fractionation by ion exchange chromatography indicated that one of the key substances was contained in the neutral/amphoteric fraction. Chemical analyses revealed that the active fractions of both hosts contained D-(+)-pinitol as the major component. We examined female responses to authentic D-pinitol and found that it induced oviposition responses at concentrations greater than 0.1%. Since this cyclitol is omnipresent in Fabaceae, we conclude that D-pinitol plays a role in mediating oviposition of E. mandarina on fabaceous plants.

Next-Generation Sequencing of an 88-Year-Old Specimen of the Poorly Known Species Liagora japonica (Nemaliales, Rhodophyta) Supports the Recognition of Otohimella gen. nov.

Liagora japonica is a red algal species distributed in temperate regions of Japan. This species has not been collected from its type locality on the Pacific coast of Japan since 1927 and seems to have become extinct in this area. For molecular characterization of L. japonica, we extracted DNA from the topotype material of L. japonica collected in 1927, analyzed seven genes using Illumina next-generation sequencing, and compared these data with sequences from modern samples of similar red algae collected from the Japan Sea coast of Japan. Both morphological and molecular data from modern samples and historical specimens (including the lectotype and topotype) suggest that the specimens from the Pacific and Japan Sea coasts of Japan should be treated as a single species, and that L. japonica is phylogenetically separated from the genus Liagora. Based on the phylogenetic results and examination of reproductive structures, we propose Otohimella japonica gen. et comb. nov., characterized morphologically by diffuse carposporophytes, undivided carposporangia, and involucral filaments initiated only from the cortical cell on the supporting cell.

Phylogeography of ten native herbaceous species in the temperate region of Japan: implication for the establishment of seed transfer zones for revegetation materials

Revegetation using native species requires the development of seed transfer zones that capture genetic distinctiveness and adaptive potentials while avoiding potential maladaptation and genetic contamination by exotic genotypes. Delineation based on phylogeographic information has recently been used to establish seed transfer zones; however, only a few herbaceous species that are suitable for revegetation have been investigated in the temperate regions of Japan. We investigated the phylogeography of non-coding regions of chloroplast DNA of ten native species in the temperate regions of Japan. Although no species showed clear-cut geographical distributions of the 2–14 haplotypes identified, spatially constrained Bayesian clustering showed two clusters in five species (Calamagrostis epigejos, Eragrostis ferruginea, Imperata cylindrica, Microstegium japonicum, and Microstegium vimineum) but not for others. Posterior modes of clusters for I. cylindrica and M. vimineum showed delineations at Chubu (the middle of Honshu Island), which divide the study region into northeastern and southwestern regions, indicating that these species had recovered from glacial refugia. Posterior mode of cluster for E. ferruginea showed that one consists of a coastal zone along the Pacific Ocean side of western Japan, while the other consists of the remaining area, indicating range expansion from south coast to north. Delineation of C. epigejos and M. japonicum were unclear. The mixed results indicated that establishing seed transfer zones for herbaceous species in Japan will require phylogeographical studies on a wide range of species that may be suitable for revegetation.

Field observations, experiments, and modeling of sediment production from freeze and thaw action on a bare, weathered granite slope in a temperate region of Japan

In the present study, field observations and model simulations were conducted to examine the process of sediment production due to freeze and thaw action in a temperate climate region. Two small areas were designated and observations were conducted to determine the mechanisms of sediment production due to freeze and thaw action on a bare, weathered granite slope in the Tanakami Mountains in the southern part of Shiga Prefecture, Japan. During the cold season from 2004 to 2005, air, surface, and subsurface temperatures were measured at 10-min intervals. The sediment produced on plot 1 was collected and weighed once per week, whereas the sediment produced on plot 2 was left untouched until the end of the cold season. The freeze and thaw cycle occurred repeatedly, with the frozen zone (i.e., temperature<0°C) extending to a depth of 10cm. Sediment was produced as a result of active freeze and thaw processes and, accordingly, there was no longer sediment production at the end of the cold season. Plots 1 and 2 produced 108 and 44kgm−2year−1 of sediment, respectively. This difference indicates that sediment cover of the saprolite surface mitigated the destructive effects of freezing. During the cold season from 2005 to 2006, a half of plot 1 was covered by broadleaves (Quercus serrata) and the other half was covered by coniferous leaves (Pinus densiflora); plot 2 was covered by no leaves to understand the effects of surface cover on the reduction in sediment production. The results showed that surface leaf cover dramatically decreased sediment production due to freeze and thaw action versus the no-surface cover. A simulation model combining a thermal conductivity analysis and a simple and empirical sediment production model was developed to estimate the amount of sediment produced by the freeze and thaw action. The observation results of temperature change and amount of sediment during the first season, from 2004 to 2005, were simulated with the model. The model assumption, that repeated freezing and thawing events are necessary for the production of sediment from saprolite (14cycles of the freeze and thaw with a freezing threshold of −1°C), is supported by comparisons of the simulated results and the observations. From an engineering viewpoint, a freeze and thaw index that incorporates the freezing depth and the repetition number of freeze and thaw cycles is proposed to estimate total amount of sediment produced from a wide area, such as a catchment scale, over a long period.

Modeling aerobic decomposition of rice straw during the off-rice season in an Andisol paddy soil in a cold temperate region of Japan: Effects of soil temperature and moisture

ABSTRACTSubmerged rice paddies are a major source of methane (CH4) which is the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO2). Accelerating rice straw decomposition during the off-rice season could help to reduce CH4 emission from rice paddies during the single rice-growth season in cold temperate regions. For understanding how both temperature and moisture can affect the rate of rice straw decomposition during the off-rice season in the cold temperate region of Tohoku district, Japan, a modeling incubation experiment was carried out in the laboratory. Bulk soil and soil mixed with 2% of δ13C-labeled rice straw with a full factorial combination of four temperature levels (−5 to 5, 5, 15, 25°C) and two moisture levels (60% and 100% WFPS) were incubated for 24 weeks. The daily change from −5 to 5°C was used to model the freezing–thawing cycles occurring during the winter season. The rates of rice straw decomposition were calculated by (i) CO2 production; (ii) change in the soil organic carbon (SOC) content; and (iii) change in the δ13C value of SOC. The results indicated that both temperature and moisture affected the rate of rice straw decomposition during the 24-week aerobic incubation period. Rates of rice straw decomposition increased not only with high temperature, but also with high moisture conditions. The rates of rice straw decomposition were more accurately calculated by CO2 production compared to those calculated by the change in the SOC content, or in its δ13C value. Under high moisture at 100% WFPS condition, the rates of rice straw decomposition were 14.0, 22.2, 33.5 and 46.2% at −5 to 5, 5, 15 and 25°C temperature treatments, respectively. While under low moisture at 60% WFPS condition, these rates were 12.7, 18.3, 31.2 and 38.4%, respectively. The Q10 of rice straw decomposition was higher between −5 to 5 and 5°C than that between 5 and 15°C and that between 15 and 25°C. Daily freezing–thawing cycles (from −5 to 5°C) did not stimulate rice straw decomposition compared with low temperature at 5°C. This study implies that to reduce CH4 emission from rice paddies during the single rice-growth season in the cold temperate regions, enhancing rice straw decomposition during the high temperature period is very important.

Outbreak of white syndrome in Acropora spp., temperate region of Japan

Coral diseases are a growing concern worldwide, posing another threat to a system already plagued by bleaching and predation. White syndromes (WS) are tissue loss diseases causing mortality on corals globally (e.g., Willis et al. 2004). In Japan,WSwas initially reported in the nation’s largest coral reef area around the Ishigaki-Iriomote Islands (Nature Conservation Bureau 2004) and has since been observed sporadically in northern Japan. This study describes an outbreak of WS in the temperate region of Japan. Hermatypic corals are distributed around Ohshima Island (31°31′N, 131°24′E) (southeast of the main island of Kyushu, Japan), where there is no coral reef development. Conspicuous signs of WS were recognized around this island in July 2014, primarily spreading to the dominant species of the area, Acropora solitaryensis (Fig. 1) and A. japonica, which form large colonies. Almost 25 % of the colonies (41 of 164 colonies examined) of Acropora spp. from shallow to deep water (7–14 m depth) were affected by WS in November 2014. For A. japonica, 50 % colonies were affected. Even in winter (February 2015), when water temperatures dropped to 15 °C, WS-infected corals were still observed. Turbinaria peltata, another dominant coral in this area, has been affected bywhite spot syndrome (Yamashiro and Fukuda 2009), but no WS infections have been observed in this species to date. The water temperature in July and August 2014 was 27 °C, which was lower compared to 2013; however, two strong typhoons hit this region in July (on 10th and 28th), causing heavy turbidity (observation by M.F.). Four typhoons landed on Kyushu in 2014, the most in a decade (mean 2.2 per year; data from Japan Meteorological Agency). Although there is no direct evidence of a causal agent for WS in this area, sedimentation/ turbidity appears to be one possible driver of coral disease, as recently observed in Australia (Pollock et al. 2014).