Telecommunications Standards Research Articles

The European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI): in search for legitimacy and resilience of European standardisation

European standardisation, a key institution for the functioning of the EU single market, functions at the crossroads of private rule-making and public policy. Recently, it has been subjected to fierce scrutiny by the European Commission and the European Court of Justice. Expressed concerns relate to the legal value of standards and the legitimacy of institutions creating them but have broader implications for European competitiveness, highlighting the strategic role of standards. By far much of this critique has been directed towards the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), the EU’s crown jewel of technology standardisation. ETSI’s normative power manifests itself in policymaking, legislation and market processes, rendering it an interesting organisation to study as a proxy to understand the legitimacy and resilience of European standardisation. Against this backdrop, this introduction sets the theoretical and legal context for this Special Issue. Upon discussing the background and dynamic of European standardisation, it provides a theoretical framework for ‘crises' and ‘legitimacy’, tailoring it to the particular case of ETSI and the challenges it faces at the policy and judicial level. Lastly, it provides a critical reflection on the Research Articles in this Special Issue, linking them to the current discourses on legitimacy and resilience.

The Evolution of Government-Business Collaboration and Telecommunication Standards Development

The Evolution of Government-Business Collaboration and Telecommunication Standards Development

Security-based low-density parity check encoder for 5G communication

The fifth generation (5G) of mobile telecommunication standards is intended to offer better performance and efficiency. One of the most significant difficulties in delivering safe data transfer through the transmission channel in the emerging 5G technology is channel-coding security. This research primarily focused on offering information transmission that is secure in the place of novel assaults such as side-channel attacks. In this research, we present a low-density parity check (LDPC) encoder that is constructed using the multiplicative masking method to overcome side-channel attacks, one of the most significant security concerns for the upcoming 5G system. As a result, it offers greater security, reduced complexity, and higher performance. Power, area, and delay can all be calculated using LDPC codes. Comparing multiplicative masking implemented LDPC encoders to ordinary channel coding techniques in terms of security seen that multiplicative masking implemented LDPC encoders offer more security. The program Xilinx ISE 14.7 can synthesize the analysis. The advantage of multiplicative masking is that it offers a promising level of security through the principle of randomization, which is the foundation of the procedure. According to the analysis, the secured transmission of the data by the proposed multiplicative masking implemented LDPC encoder is increased.

Evaluating the Performance of ETSI-ITS Multi-Stack Protocols for V2V Communication in VANETs: A Simulation Study

The research evaluates various multi-stack protocols for Vehicular Ad-hoc Networks (VANETs), focusing on Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communication scenarios with Emergency Vehicle (EV) simulations. The study uses the ns-3 network and SUMO (Simulation of Urban MObility) traffic simulators to test these protocols in diverse scenarios, including fluctuating data rates and dense network conditions. By implementing the IEEE 802.11p protocol alongside vehicular message dissemination stacks compliant with ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) ITS (Intelligent Transport Systems) standards, the study performs simulation experiments with varying vehicle counts, ranging from 20 to 35. It employs two distinct data rate configurations while maintaining a constant transmission power of 23 dBm. The results indicate a decline in the average Packet Reception Ratio (PRR) as vehicle density increases, indicating heightened contention and interference. At the same time, there is an observed increase in average latency, contributing to increased message transmission and reception delays. The quantitative analysis demonstrates an inverse relationship between the average PRR and the total vehicle count when the SEND_CAM message is enabled. On the other hand, disabling SEND_CAM maintains a relatively consistent average PRR across scenarios. Additionally, a positive correlation between vehicle count and average latency underlines the impact of network congestion and interference on communication efficacy within VANETs. Despite suboptimal PRR values falling between 41% and 47%, latency performance remains satisfactory, with average latency durations ranging from 0.154 s to 0.187 s. Notably, the SEND_CAM parameter status shows negligible impact on protocol performance, suggesting that network density plays a more pivotal role. Finally, this study offers valuable insights into the trade-offs and challenges of multi-stack protocols in V2V communication within VANETs. Further optimization efforts are recommended to improve packet reception ratios, especially in high-vehicle-density environments, while maintaining acceptable latency levels. These findings contribute to the ongoing efforts to enhance the reliability and efficiency of communication protocols in VANETs, thus advancing the development of intelligent transportation systems. The study's quantitative protocol performance analysis under varying network conditions provides valuable guidance for optimizing V2V communication deployments in VANETs.

Nonlinear RF impairments modeling with OFDM symbol-based parallel Wiener–Hammerstein structure

In the paper, a novel orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) symbol-based parallel Wiener–Hammerstein structure is proposed to deal with the problem of nonlinear radio frequency (RF) impairments modeling for a cyclic prefix OFDM (CP-OFDM) waveform in telecommunication systems. The aforementioned structure is an equivalent linear-in-parameters representation of the parallel Wiener–Hammerstein structure in the considered problem. The structure is formally derived enabling the usage of identification algorithms compared with the artificial neural network (ANN) approach. The solution is compliant with current telecommunication standards.

ETSI As a case study of organizational resilience in standard setting: strategies that ensure thriving despite organizational challenges

This paper brings forth an empirical study of organizational resilience strategies in standard setting. The selection of ETSI (The European Telecommunications Standards Institute) as a case study for this purpose was motivated by ETSI's legal status as an ESO (European Standardization Organization), global impact, and the history of external criticism directed at the organization. Based on theoretical considerations and author's previous empirical research, it was expected that the organizational resilience strategies used by ETSI differ with regards to two dimensions: anticipation of the disturbance (proactive and reactive strategies); and the locus of the strategic effort (internal or external to the organization). A combination of deductive and inductive content analysis was applied to 12 semi-structured interviews with individuals who participate in standard setting activities within ETSI. The conducted analysis confirmed the expected 2 × 2 type of taxonomy determined by anticipation and locus of strategic effort. The identified 29 categories were thus categorized into four clusters of resilience strategies: proactive external (5), proactive internal (9), reactive external (5) and reactive internal (10) strategies. The discussion reflects on the historical organizational challenges, the resilience strategies reported in response to them, and how they might have contributed to continued thriving of ETSI despite organizational challenges.

ETSI ITS: A Comprehensive Overview of the Architecture, Challenges and Issues

Abstract: Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) have attracted the attention of developing nations because of their potential to enhance mobility and road safety, two issues that have become increasingly pressing in recent years. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has accentuated every industry, and the automobile industry is no exception, allowing vehicles to communicate among themselves and the surrounding infrastructure for information exchange using Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication. Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle- to-infrastructure (V2I), vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P), and vehicle-to-cloud (V2C) connections are made possible through the use of state-of-the-art networking technology. With EVehicles at the forefront, the vision of an ITS expands further. ITS is anticipated to offer wireless network-based services including vehicle occupant entertainment, traffic flow optimization, and accident prevention. Most nations have been trying to standardize the ITS architecture, and the European Union (EU) has been at the forefront by developing and standardizing the ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) architecture. As the most mature ITS architecture, this paper thoroughly explains the ETSI architecture in a single document for both the researcher's and newcomers' ease. Additionally, the challenges and issues pertinent to adopting and implementing the ITS ecosystem have also been discussed in detail.

Improvement of 5G Core Network Performance using Network Slicing and Deep Reinforcement Learning

Users have increasingly been having more use cases for the network while expecting the best Quality of Service (QoS) and Quality of Experience (QoE). The Fifth Generation of mobile telecommunications technology (5G) network had promised to satisfy most of the expectations and network slicing had been introduced in 5G to be able to satisfy various use cases. However, creating slices in a real-life environment with just the resources required while having optimized QoS has been a challenge. This has necessitated more intelligence to be required in the network and machine learning (ML) has been used recently to add the intelligence and ensure zero-touch automation. This research addresses the open question of creating slices to satisfy various use cases based on their QoS requirements, managing, and orchestrating them optimally with minimal resources while allowing the isolation of services by introducing a Deep reinforcement Machine Learning (DRL) algorithm. This research first evaluates the previous work done in improving QoS in the 5G core. 5G architecture is simulated by following the ETSI NFV MANO (European Telecommunications Standards Institute for Network Function Virtualization Management and Orchestration) framework and uses Open5G in 5G core, UERANISM for RAN, Openstack for Virtual Infrastructure Manager (VIM), and Tacker for Virtual Network Function Management and orchestration (VNFMO). The research simulates network slicing at the User Plane Function (UPF) level and evaluates how it has improved QoS. The network slicing function is automated by following ETSI Closed Loop Architecture and using Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) by modeling the problem as a Markov Decision Problem (MDP). Throughput is the Reward for the actions of the DRL agent. Comparison is done on the impact of slicing on throughput and compares models that have not been sliced, the ones that have been sliced and combined to work together, and models with slices that have been assigned more bandwidth. Sliced networks have better throughput than the ones not sliced. If more slices are load-balanced the throughput is increased. Deep Reinforcement Learning has managed to achieve the dynamic assigning of slices to compensate for declining throughput.

Channel Operating Margin Exploration as a Complementary Transceiver Circuit Design Tool for 25 Gbps PAM4 Serial Links

The design of high-speed serial links continues to attract the attention of the electronics industry due to the steady development of different telecommunications standards, generating a constantly growing data rate and new modulation schemes. However, conventional certification metrics can lead to sub-optimal transmit (Tx) and receive (Rx) circuit designs. Therefore, the Ethernet standard IEEE 802.3bj introduced a more effective evaluation method called channel operating margin (COM) to explore the design space at an early stage. Although the advantages of COM have been discussed in the literature and only a few works explore its potential as a backplane design tool, there are no reports on the use of COM as a complementary design tool for transceiver circuits. This work studies the use of COM as a complementary tool for transceiver design. COM performance is evaluated for four 100GBASE-KP4 backplanes and different equalization architectures. The impact of the metric and the challenges associated with incorporating new equalization structures into the COM flow are discussed. The results reveal a conventional Tx-Rx architecture that exceeds the COM threshold and an alternative one that improves the opening of the eye diagram but does not exceed the threshold.

The role of ETSI in the EU’s regulation and governance of artificial intelligence

This paper explores the significant role that standardisation plays in the regulation and governance of artificial intelligence (AI) within the European Union (EU). As AI technologies rapidly advance, they bring about important societal implications involving privacy, fairness, transparency and other relevant ethical considerations. As a result, legislators and policymakers around the world are joined by a common drive to provide legislative solutions and regulatory frameworks that guarantee that the ongoing integration of AI systems into society is consistent with fundamental rights and democratic values. This paper critically examines the EU Regulation on AI (AI Act), which delegates the definition of essential requirements for high-risks AI systems to harmonised standards, underlying the significance of standardisation in ensuring technical feasibility and compliance with EU laws and values. At the forefront of this discussion there is the increasing influence of AI-related standardisation across social, economic, and geopolitical domains, with a particular focus on the crucial role played by Standard Developing Organisations (SDOs) in the regulatory and governance processes. This paper contributes to the legal scholarship by critically analysing the regulatory approach chosen for the EU’s AI Act, contesting the adequacy of the New Legislative Framework (NLF) for AI governance, and arguing that the reliance on harmonised standards risks undermining democratic accountability and fails to sufficiently safeguard fundamental rights without a more inclusive and transparent standard-setting process. The article focuses on the exclusion of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) from the European Commissions standardisation request in support of the AI Act, and asseses its potential impact on EU law-making and regulatory consistency. Ultimately, the analysis aims to contribute to the understanding of standardisation dynamics, offering insights into its profound implications for AI governance and the broader digital sphere.

What is beyond 50G: future standards of optical access networks [Invited

In the past two decades, optical access networks have been widely deployed by operators around the world. The global optical access network market reaches about 1 billion users with a revenue of over 10 billion US dollars. As strategic tools to facilitate mass production, the optical access network standards play a crucial role in driving the product deployment and market growth. This paper overviews the latest effort in international standards bodies on the next generation optical access networks. It discusses projects in this area within the International Telecommunication Union’s Telecommunication Standardization Section (ITU-T), the IEEE, and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Promising technologies are investigated with the goal of providing rates beyond 50 Gbps. Challenges are highlighted to satisfy the requirements on balancing access rates, loss budgets, and cost. Candidate systems are analyzed in three categories: point-to-multipoint (PtMP), point-to-point (PtP), and new applications. These standardization endeavors will jointly guarantee optical access networks as the premiere solution of wireline broadband access.

Distributed Ledger Standards for 6G Mobile Networks

Distributed ledger technology, with its multitude of advantages including immutability, transparency, decentralization, and security, has excellent potential to promote and even revolutionize future 6G mobile networks. Large-scale distributed ledger deployment within or for mobile networks relies on distributed ledger-focused standards to facilitate and ensure interoperability. The European Telecommunications Standards (ETSI) Industry Specification Group (ISG) on Permissioned Distributed Ledger (PDL) develops PDL-related standards, targeting various application verticals, especially within the Information and Communications Technology (ICT) domain. This article aims to give an overview of ETSI ISG PDL and describes selected PDL standards, which have synergies with future 6G mobile networks.

Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition a-SiOCN:H low-Z thin films for bulk acoustic wave resonators

The 5th generation (5G) wireless telecommunication standards with newly defined frequency bands up to 6 GHz are currently established around the world. While outperforming surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters above 1 GHz, bulk acoustic wave (BAW) resonators in multiplexers for radio-frequency front-end (RFFE) modules continuously face higher performance requirements. In contrast to free-standing bulk acoustic resonators (FBARs), solidly mounted resonator (SMR) technology uses an acoustic Bragg mirror, which has already been successfully applied for several GHz applications. In this work, we investigate the potential of amorphous hydrogenated silicon-oxycarbonitride (a-SiOCN:H) thin films synthesized with low-temperature plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) as a low acoustic impedance (low-Z) material. Compared to the state-of-the-art where in Bragg mirrors up to now SiO2 is used as standard, the acoustic impedance ratio against the high-Z material tungsten (W) is enhanced for a better device performance. To limit the expected increase in viscous loss when the acoustic impedance is reduced, to a minimum, predominantly the mass density was reduced while keeping the mechanical elasticity high. By doing so, acoustic impedance values as low as 7.1 MRayl were achieved, thereby increasing the impedance ratio of high-Z to low-Z materials from 8:1 up to 14:1.

Medical Data in Wireless Body Area Networks: Device Authentication Techniques and Threat Mitigation Strategies Based on a Token-Based Communication Approach

Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs), low power, and short-range wireless communication in a near-body area provide advantages, particularly in the medical and healthcare sector: (i) they enable continuous monitoring of patients and (ii) the recording and correlation of physical and biological information. Along with the utilization and integration of these (sensitive) private and personal data, there are substantial requirements concerning security and privacy, as well as protection during processing and transmission. Contrary to the star topology frequently used in various standards, the overall concept of a novel low-data rate token-based WBAN framework is proposed. This work further comprises the evaluation of strategies for handling medical data with WBANs and emphasizes the importance and necessity of encryption and security strategies in the context of sensitive information. Furthermore, this work considers the recent advancements in Artificial Intelligence (AI), which are opening up opportunities for enhancing cyber resilience, but on the other hand, also new attack vectors. Moreover, the implications of targeted regulatory measures, such as the European AI Act, are considered. In contrast to, for instance, the proposed star network topologies of the IEEE 802.15.6 WBAN standard or the Technical Committee (TC) SmartBAN of the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI), the concept of a ring topology is proposed which concatenates information in the form of a ‘data train’ and thus results in faster and more efficient communication. Beyond that, the conductivity of human skin is included in the approach presented to incorporate a supplementary channel. This direct contact requirement not only fortifies the security of the system but also facilitates a reliable means of secure communication, pivotal in maintaining the integrity of sensitive health data. The work identifies different threat models associated with the WBAN system and evaluates potential data vulnerabilities and risks to maximize security. It highlights the crucial balance between security and efficiency in WBANs, using the token-based approach as a case study. Further, it sets a foundation for future healthcare technology advancements, aiming to ensure the secure and efficient integration of patient data.

Feasibility Study of Using 5G Signals for Illumination Purposes in Passive Radar

Feasibility Study of Using 5G Signals for Illumination Purposes in Passive Radar

Interrogating the standardisation of surveillance in 5G amid US–China competition

ABSTRACT In this article we show that the 5G competition between the United States and Western Europe versus China is not reflected in the standardisation of lawful interception (LI) technologies in the world’s leading telecommunications standardisation body, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). Guided by the concept of infrastructure as a site and tool of political contestation, we develop a new approach to the study of Internet governance and standard-setting processes that leverages web scraping and computer-assisted document set discovery software tools. We bring these methods into conversation with theoretical approaches from material media studies, science and technology studies, and international relations. The 3GPP is the main telecommunications standardisation body and the only consortium developing standards to fulfil the ITU’s criteria for the 5th generation of telecommunications technology (5G). The 3GPP therefore is a strategic venue to observe and interpret the politics of standardisation processes. As such, the LI-related work conducted in 3GPP exemplifies public and private actors’ capacity to influence global surveillance standards and export their surveillance technologies. While European and United States governments engage in the standardisation of surveillance technologies, the Chinese government does not do this in the 3GPP. This fuels distrust in 5G technologies. We argue that further integration of China in standardisation could function as a trust-building measure.

Shortest Path Routing Performance Evaluation over SDN Environment

Static routing has a manual configuration setup system, and the scope of static routing in an SDN network is just for small networks. The solution to this problem rises up with the new technology defined as software-defined networking (SDN) based on shortest path first dynamic routing. SDN has the facility of a centralized controller that smooth the controls and routes computation over a data packet. The performance analysis of SDN networks that have SDN switches connected to the network based on the shortest path first protocol are simulated on Mininet. The POX controller with Mininet programming feature for creating smart topologies was chosen. In this research, the SDN network using Dijkstra’s algorithm, Bellman-Ford algorithm, extended Dijkstra’s algorithm and Floyd Warshall Algorithm were implemented. The quality factors of SDN created by using four algorithms are measured in terms of delay, jitter, latency, packet loss, transmit, received, throughput, and bandwidth based on experimental results and European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) data. The performance parameters of SDN network topology created using Dijkstra’s, bellman ford, extended Dijkstra’s, and Floyd Warshall algorithms were compared and the experimental results showed that Bellman-Ford algorithm is better in terms of performance parameters than the other three algorithms.

Modelling and numerical analysis of combined dual impact of SRS and FWM on the performance of upstream and downstream channels of a novel UDWDM/DWDM-PON

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is an important method in modern optical communication systems for both long-haul and access networks. Particularly, after being standardized by Telecommunication Standardization Sector of International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T), WDM passive optical network (WDM-PON) becomes a considerable choice for fronthaul implementations of 5G networks. Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) and four-wave mixing (FWM) are crucial nonlinear impacts that significantly limit the performance of WDM-based optical fiber communication systems. In this paper, an ultra-dense/dense WDM-PON (UDWDM/DWDM-PON) architecture has been proposed and combined dual impact of SRS and FWM on performances of upstream channels (USCs) and downstream channels (DSCs) of the proposed UDWDM/DWDM-PON has been numerically analyzed. USCs have been assumed to operate in 1310 nm region while operating wavelength region of DSCs has been taken as 1550 nm. Simulations have been performed on both UDWDM-PON architectures with 3.125 GHz and 6.25 GHz channel spacings and DWDM-PON architectures with channel spacings between 12.5 GHz and 100 GHz. 2x15-channel and 2x63-channel system structures have been considered in simulations. Signal-to-crosstalk ratio (SXR) has been chosen as performance parameter and its variation with channel input powers, channel spacings and channel lengths have been simulated for both USCs and DSCs of 2x15- and 2x63-channel UDWDM/DWDM-PONs. Results show that the proposed UDWDM/DWDM-PONs using single G.652 fiber can exhibit a reliable communication with minimum 23 dB SXR performance under combined dual impact of SRS and FWM unless some highlights about input powers and channel lengths mentioned in the paper are neglected.

Deterministic Full-Fiber Service Network for the Fifth-Generation Fixed Network (F5G)

A new communication era characterized by cloud services with high bandwidth and low latency requirements is coming. In this era, fixed networks always provide the highest bandwidth and availability for broadband access users. The concept of the fifth-generation fixed network (F5G), proposed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), is to identify the fixed network generations and facilitate the adoption of wider technical standards. In F5G period, the future fixed network will adapt to the end-to-end optical fiber architecture. F5G connect users with clouds and try its best to provide deterministic service carrying. In the fixed network family, optical transport networks (OTN) have the benefit of high-quality bandwidth provisioning, which will be fundamental infrastructures for F5G. This article focuses on the evolving trend of OTN in the new communication era. Considering the deterministic requirements of cloud services in the F5G era and the key enabling optical service unit (OSU), we propose a concept of deterministic full-fiber service network (D-FSN), which drive OTN to play an important role in F5G. We also outline the D-FSN network architecture and several new key technologies. In addition, as a typical service of F5G, Cloud Virtual Reality (VR) is experimentally demonstrated to verify the performance of D-FSNs. Finally, we look ahead to the possible development trend and challenges of D-FSN.

Performance Evaluation of a Novel Intrusion Detection System in Next Generation Networks

The integration of Internet of Things (IoT) with 5G simply creates additional threat landscape and any network infrastructure is more vulnerable. Severe attacks on networks potentially damage organization reputation, customers or tenants lose confidence, and impacts operational and maintenance cost. Intrusion detection systems (IDSs) are an effective approach to mitigate threats. We present a novel IDS mechanism in which the unique Radio Frequency (RF) features of IoT devices are used to create a learning model which is later used to identify the illegitimate devices in the network. Leveraging the Deep Autoencoder (DAE), the existing steady-state feature extraction is generalized. The performance evaluation is conducted using a real data set from different aspects including the mobility of the nodes. The proposed IDS is broken down into pluggable virtual network function (VNF) components and its evaluation is presented for its integration into the 5G network slicing ecosystem from the perspective of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) standards. A Proof of Concept (PoC) is presented using ETSI Open Source NFV Management and Orchestration (OSM-MANO) test bed, deployed on AWS cloud systems, to show how the proposed approach would fit in with a real-life MANO.