Teacher Effectiveness Research Research Articles

Reflecting on decades of teacher expectations and teacher effectiveness research: Considerations for current and future research

This article reviews over 50 years of research on teacher expectations and teacher effectiveness. In addition to describing these research traditions and findings, I tie the research in these evolving fields to the societal issues in play when the research was conducted and connect historical and emerging work. I describe the enormous growth of knowledge in both fields and its potential for practice. Among many outcomes, these two research traditions yielded clear evidence that teachers impact student achievement. Despite the potential value of this research, it has largely been ignored by policy makers, and when used, has been misused. I contend that policy makers have focused on the weaknesses of normative teaching and have ignored teachers’ strengths and knowledge. Of course, aspects of normative teaching can be improved, as can teacher expectations and teacher effectiveness research. Current and continuing research has some capacity for addressing the opportunity and achievement gaps that separate more advantaged and marginalized students; however, teachers and schools alone cannot resolve these vast opportunity differences that are available to American students.

Measuring English teaching quality: what teacher effectiveness research can offer?

Research findings worldwide suggest that teachers should continually improve their teaching quality, which refers to instruction or actions to deliver teaching and learning materials, even if they are good teachers. The question is the basis that should be considered to decide the improvement priorities. Therefore, this paper reviews theoretically driven and empirically validated teacher instruction contributing to student outcomes, which can serve as a framework for deciding the areas of improvement. The paper also reviews relevant techniques to measure teacher instruction to determine teachers' teaching quality. The study employed a qualitative method, in which a literature review on educational effectiveness research, especially teacher effectiveness research, was carried out to understand teacher actions in the classroom that contribute to achieving learning goals, especially concerning English lessons, as the focus of this paper. The paper used keywords such as effective English teaching, educational effectiveness research, teaching quality, teacher effectiveness research, and techniques of measuring teaching quality to find relevant literature. The findings conclude that the classroom factors of the dynamic model of educational effectiveness research could serve as a framework to conceptualize English teaching quality, whereas techniques like student surveys or observation can be used to investigate teachers’ initial instructional practices.

Efficacious and Positive Teachers Achieve More: Examining the Relationship Between Teacher Efficacy, Emotions, and Their Practicum Performance

This study will examine the relationship between pre-service teachers’ efficacy, emotion, and practicum performance score. A sample of 963 pre-service teachers was approached from four universities in China. This study used two self-reported instruments (The Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale and the Teacher Emotion Inventory) and the participants’ practicum performance scores to test the relationship. Data were dealt using exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation modelling. As expected, the structural model generally shows that pre-service teachers’ efficacy significantly predicts their practicum performance through their emotions. Teachers with a higher level of efficacy on Instructional Strategies positively predict their practicum performance through more pleasant emotions such as Love and Joy. By contrast, pre-service teachers with a lower level of confidence of Student Engagement tend to experience more unpleasant emotions (e.g. Fear, Sadness, and Anger) and gain lower practicum performance. One interesting link identified is between the efficacy factor Classroom Management and negative emotion Sadness. On the top of these, three emotion dimensions had been identified to relate to their practicum scores, that is, Joy, Love and Anger. The findings concerning the three constructs can provide a new perspective for teacher effectiveness research by taking teacher emotion and efficacy into account.

The Paradox of Pedagogical Excellence Among Exemplary Black Women Educators

Research has documented that effective Black educators ignite the torch and light the path toward effectively meeting the needs of all students, particularly African American. However, descriptions of “highly qualified” teachers often ignore the critical insights and practices that undergird the success of Black teachers, and one consequence of this pedagogical negligence has been the professional alienation of effective Black female educators. This article shares findings from a study with five community-nominated Black female teachers, and uses the theories of intersectionality and positionality, along with discourse analysis, to investigate the groups’ perceptions of their professional positionality. Findings reveal a distinctive narrative in which participants expressed being positioned in ways that reflect negative stereotypical images of Black women despite their effectiveness in promoting student success. Implications and recommendations for teacher effectiveness research, teacher preparation, and teacher quality policy are included.

Going beyond structured observations: looking at classroom practice through a mixed method lens

In this paper, we extend a mixed method (MM) approach to lesson observation and analysis used in previous research in England, combining multiple structured observation instruments and qualitative field notes, to provide a framework for studying three videotaped lessons from 3rd-grade US mathematics classrooms. Two structured observation schedules are employed, one subject-specific and research-oriented and the other generic and inspection-oriented. Both instruments were previously developed based on evidence from the teacher effectiveness research (TER) knowledge base. Qualitative field notes, in addition to structured observation schedules, provide detailed narratives for each lesson video. Separate findings from each instrument and approach are presented, followed by an integrated analysis and synthesis of results. Although previous studies used similar methods to analyze teaching practice within broader research designs incorporating additional methods and perspectives (e.g. teacher interviews, pupil assessments, pupil questionnaires), this paper explicitly examines the strengths and limitations of the multi-instrument, mixed method approach to lesson observation. Using multiple observation instruments allows for triangulation as well as consideration of complementary foci (i.e. a content-specific instrument measures fine-grained aspects of practice not emphasized in a more generic instrument, and vice versa). Field notes facilitate rich descriptions and more thorough contextualization and illumination of teaching practice than structured observation ratings alone. Further, the MM approach allows for consideration of lesson features beyond those established in TER literature as sufficient to characterize ‘effective’ practice.

Observations and student perceptions of the quality of preservice teachers’ teaching behaviour: construct representation and predictive quality

Observations and student perceptions are recognised as important tools for examining teaching behaviour, but little is known about whether both perspectives share similar construct representations and how both perspectives link with student academic outcomes. The present study compared the construct representation of preservice teachers’ teaching behaviour as perceived by trained teacher observers and students. It also examined the predictive power of both measures of teaching behaviour for student academic engagement. The theoretical framework of teaching behaviour used in this study is based on evidence-based research derived from empirical teacher effectiveness research. The study was part of a national project that included 2164 students and 108 teachers in The Netherlands. Results suggest that, although observations and student perceptions of teaching behaviour shared similar theoretical considerations, the construct representations seemed to differ to some extent. Furthermore, although both perspectives are significant predictors of student academic engagement, student perceptions appeared to be more predictive of their perceived academic engagement than observations. Implications for research on learning environments and teacher education are discussed.

Integrating teacher education effectiveness research into educational effectiveness models

The purpose of this article is to review and to connect research about teacher education effectiveness and school effectiveness to arrive at an integrative conceptualization that has the potential of improving empirical research in both fields. Teacher education effectiveness addresses effects of teacher education on outcomes such as teacher knowledge, this knowledge becomes the predictor in teacher effectiveness research with instructional quality and student achievement as outcomes. The two research orientations become united in path-analytic studies. A fuller incorporation leads to an extended educational effectiveness model that enriches a systemic interpretation of key levers of educational effectiveness and opens up black boxes at the system and the classroom level. In such a comprehensive model, teacher policies can be regarded an alternative for educational improvement strategies like school curriculum policies, accountability and evaluation or governance and management. At the same time insights from educational effectiveness research at large suggest inclusion of additional variables in teacher education and teacher effectiveness research, particularly on the institutional level.

International ‘benchmarking’ studies and the identification of ‘education best practice’: a focus on classroom teachers and their practices

The disproportionate focus on classroom teachers and their instruction—teacher effectiveness—in order to confront and address under-achievement and disadvantage appears as a contemporary education policy theme in Australia. Phrases such as ‘high performing schooling systems’, ‘the best teachers’, ‘high performing countries’, ‘quality teaching’, ‘under-performing schools’, ‘the right change’, ‘operationally feasible’, ‘targeting of reforms’, ‘degrees of under-performance’, ‘educational drivers’, ‘teacher quality and improved teaching’ and ‘external standards and governance’ are constantly mentioned and given continual attention and prominence by policy-makers. The paper questions and critiques a policy-making direction that uses teacher effectiveness research to force and steer reform in education. The distinctive and narrow concern with teacher effectiveness works to the specific exclusion of breadth and scope concerning debate about broader education related issues and questions, for example, matters of student achievement, exclusion and disadvantage. This article uses a qualitative research approach informed by critical theory to examine three influential private sector reports on education and schooling: The McKinsey Report (2007)—How the world’s best-performing school systems come out on top, The Nous Group (2011)—Schooling Challenges and Opportunities and The Grattan Institute (2012)—Catching up: Learning from the best school systems in East Asia. The article subjects the reports to close critical scrutiny and examination and finds that classroom teachers are positioned so that their specific and explicit instruction becomes the differentiating ‘variable’ in matters of student achievement and success.

Physical Education Teacher Effectiveness in a Public Health Context

The health benefits of physical activity are well documented, and the important role that schools and physical education (PE) can play in reducing sedentary behavior and contributing to population health has been identified. Although effective teaching is ultimately judged by student achievement, a major component of teacher and school effectiveness studies has been student engagement. Thus, in PE, it is important to assess the teaching and learning processes related to expected outcomes, including what students and teachers do and how lessons are delivered. Within a public health context, it is then important to assess how teachers provide students with ample health-enhancing physical activity to help them become physically fit and to learn generalizable movement and behavioral skills designed to promote physical activity and fitness outside of class time. In this article, we emphasize that the future of PE in our nation's schools will depend on the ability of schools to provide programs that are perceived to be of importance to the public; moreover, we believe that the future of PE rests on the effectiveness of PE teachers to operate within a public health context. In addition, we also provide a summary of teacher effectiveness research within a public health context and offer visions for the future assessment and evaluation of PE teacher effectiveness that move beyond the PE lesson to include components of the comprehensive school physical activity model.

The (mis)identification of ineffective classroom teaching practice: critical interrogations of classroom teacher effectiveness research

This paper critiques specific forms of classroom teacher effectiveness research. In doing so, the paper suggests that education policy-making deems and employs teacher effectiveness research as a promising and capable contrivance for the identification of ineffective classroom teaching practice. The paper engages with this policy debate by using a specific policy example from the Australian state of Victoria, the Victorian Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD) Blueprint for Government Schools (2003/2008). Moreover, the attention given to “teacher effectiveness” as the means by which school systems aim to reverse student under-achievement positions classroom teachers as the controlling authority over educational outcomes. Indeed, teacher effectiveness is the defining quality of a policy-making debate that at its core dispenses with broader considerations of possible influence thought to substantially affect the learning outcomes of public school students.

Classroom teacher effectiveness research and inquiry, and its relevance to the development of public education policy: an Australian context

This paper has as its focus an analysis of the question and problem of classroom teacher effectiveness research and inquiry. It presents an examination of what counts as valid and worthwhile research in classroom teacher effectiveness studies for the development of education policy within an Australian context, the State of Victoria. The Government’s Blueprint, the major education policy document of the Victorian State Labour Government, outlines its educational approach. Important and core features of government direction for education policy include a focus on social and economic disadvantage. A priority for the Victorian State Labour Government is tangible and measurable improvement in the performance of the public education system. A particular concern is the problem of academic underperformance within public schools, particularly those designated as low-performing and situated in socially and economically disadvantaged communities. Building the capacity of the State’s teacher workforce forms a key component of the Blueprint, and State Government direction in public education. The paper utilises a qualitative theoretical framework. Eight education policy actor/participants were interviewed and their responses analysed using a critical discourse approach. The main findings indicate that education policy actors advocate a strong belief in particular forms of evidence-based research for the development of education policy in the area of classroom teacher effectiveness.

Classroom teacher effectiveness research: a conceptual critique

Teacher effectiveness research now informs the rationale of much Australian education policy aimed at redressing student under‐achievement. The approach draws a ‘straight line’ between teacher practice and student outcomes, ‘controlling’ for and ultimately dismissive of other possible influences. The paper calls into question this conception of teaching–learning relations, particularly the extent to which teaching practice can be reasonably quantified and improvements in students' academic achievement can be solely attributed to and/or sole responsibility placed on the pedagogic strategies employed by teachers. Drawing on the theoretical resources of Foucault and Bourdieu, the paper argues further that teacher effectiveness research is flawed in both means and ends. It concludes that in its ranking of student and teacher performance, such research actually works against the purposes of education; specifically, authentic teaching and learning.

Getting lost in translation? An analysis of the international engagement of practitioners and policy-makers with the educational effectiveness research base

Educational effectiveness research (EER) has accumulated much knowledge in the areas of school effectiveness research (SER), teacher effectiveness research (TER) and school/system improvement research (SSIR). Yet many schools and educational systems are not making enough use of the material and their insights. The article reviews evidence of practitioner engagement and finds it limited in the areas of SER, greater in the area of TER and most prevalent in SSIR. Policy-maker engagement has been notable in some countries, but more limited in others. The article concludes by arguing for a new paradigm of EER that studies multiple levels of the educational system simultaneously utilising multiple methods and involves practitioners and policy-makers in a true EER community of expertise, in order to increase the reach and take-up of the discipline.

‘We’re all in this together, the kids and me’: beginning teachers’ use of their personal life knowledge in the Religious Education classroom

In the context of international debates about teachers’ knowledge, this essay reports a study of how and why a cohort of English trainee teachers of Religious Education used their personal life knowledge in their teaching. Four possible reasons for their commitment to this practice are examined. A belief in the value of openness, a desire to motivate and engage their pupils, and a need to create ‘bridges’ between the pupils’ worlds and those of religions are considered. The possibility that trainees used their life knowledge to bridge a ‘gap’ between their personal and professional lives is also discussed. The findings of Communication and Teacher Effectiveness research are used to indicate the potential benefits of the practice and the works by Aldenmyr and Furedi are drawn upon to highlight potential dangers. The author concludes that the sharing of teachers’ life knowledge can benefit pupils, but that teachers need to reflect on the dangers and further research is needed to support this.

LEARNING ATTAINMENTS AS A RESULT OF STUDENT ACTIVITY, COGNITION AND THE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT

The purpose of the study was to construct a model to comprehensively describe the relationships between the classroom learning environment, student’s cognition (student mediation) and learning outcomes. In studies of the learning environment, mostly direct (distal) connections have been in-vestigated in relationships between psycho-social properties and learning outcomes. Aspects of student mediation (proximal), such as student’s self-efficacy and metacognition, have also often been overlooked in traditional teacher effectiveness research. Using a model that includes mediation vari-ables and that allows for indirect connections between variables increases understanding of how these mechanisms interact. A questionnaire was used to collect data from 218 fifth- and sixth-grade students in Finnish comprehensive schools (girls, N = 116; boys, N = 102). Drawing on prior research findings, a conceptual model was first developed to identify the range of statistically significant relationships between the learning environment, student’s cognition and learning attainment. To further develop the model, a number of modification indices of the AMOS program were employed and then the revised model was tested. The goodness of fit indices for the re-specified model provided evidence for an adequate fit to the data. It was concluded that qualities of classroom learning, including metacognitive orientation, student-teacher relationships and conditions for studying, will have both indirect and direct effects on student’s cognition and participation and enhance student’s learning. Key words: classroom learning environment, instructional quality, structural equation models, student learning, student mediation.

State control, religious deference and cultural reproduction: some problems with theorising curriculum and pedagogy in the Cambridge Primary Review

This article offers a critique of the quality of theorising underlying proposals on curriculum and pedagogy in the Cambridge Primary Review. Despite its strengths, the review is seen as omitting consideration of three major areas in primary education: gifted pupils, teacher effectiveness research and the private sector. Questions are raised about the review's use of evidence about a broad and balanced curriculum and about ability grouping. The proposals for curriculum are seen as backward-looking and bureaucratic, while its treatment of religious education is judged to be overly deferential and inadvertently sustaining indoctrination. Its proposals for pedagogy give undue emphasis to a particular form of constructivism, dialogic teaching, whilst ignoring theories of social/cultural reproduction. It is concluded that the review missed an opportunity to propose three more radical and innovatory reforms: to increase school autonomy in curriculum matters; to theorise pedagogy so as to include learning beyond the school; and, to integrate recent findings from educational effectiveness research into theorising pedagogy.

Instructional leadership, connoisseurship and critique: using an arts‐based approach to extend conversations about teaching

Recent teacher effectiveness research supports the notion that students learn best from teachers who can be characterized as managing both the craft and the artistic dimensions of learning. Additionally, there is a body of research that has examined possible strategies instructional leaders might use to support the development of the craft dimension. It is less clear, however, in what ways leaders might address the artistic dimensions of the classroom performance when working with teachers. Rooted in a theory of qualitative inquiry, the author presents a model for instructional leadership practice as connoisseurship and couples that private practice with the Feldman Method for art criticism to make public what is observed in classrooms. The results from a pilot study focusing on the level of implementation of arts‐based leadership are included.

Introducing a Teacher Evaluation System Based on Teacher Effectiveness Research: An Investigation of Stakeholders’ Perceptions

Teacher Effectiveness Research (TER) could be a foundation upon which a valid teacher evaluation system could be built. However, even a technically exceptional evaluation system may be doomed to fail if the political dynamics that influence its implementation are not examined. This study examines the extent to which a proposed teacher evaluation system based on TER is possible to gain acceptance from the main stakeholders of the Cypriot educational system. The extent to which stakeholders’ reactions to the proposed system are associated with their personal interests and concerns is also investigated. Both groups recognized that TER could be a foundation upon which a valid teacher evaluation system could be built but were critical of suggestions that might reduce their professional power. In order to reach consensus, policy makers should establish procedures to ensure a clear understanding among stakeholders of both the theoretical assumptions of the proposed system and the type of concerns that stakeholders might have against change.

Teacher education

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The international system for Teacher Observation and Feedback: Evolution of an international study of teacher effectiveness constructs1

This article presents information on 2 international educational effectiveness studies, one completed and the other ongoing. The 2nd study is, to a large degree, a reaction to a methodological problem encountered in the 1st study, the lack of an internationally valid instrument measuring teacher effectiveness. This article presents 4 reasons for conducting the 2nd study (International System for Teacher Observation and Feedback (ISTOF)) and then details the overall work plan for ISTOF-I (2004 – 2006) and ISTOF-II (2006 – 2007). The sample of 20 fully participating country teams in ISTOF is very diverse with representatives from nearly all geographic areas of the world (North and South America, Europe, Africa, Asia), many of which have never participated in teacher or school effectiveness research. This article summarizes progress made on the development of the ISTOF protocol, including the generation of components and indicators of teacher effectiveness. In many ways, the study is already a success, due to the diversity of the participating countries and their generation of major parts of the protocol during ISTOF-I. Nevertheless, this article concludes with a discussion of some of the major challenges that the research team will face as it begins ISTOF-II.