Tea Farmers Research Articles

Grade Identification of Tieguanyin Tea Using Fluorescence Hyperspectra and Different Statistical Algorithms

In order to rapidly and nondestructively identify tea grades, fluorescence hyperspectral imaging (FHSI) technology was proposed in this paper. A total of 309 Tieguanyin tea samples with three different grades were collected and the fluorescence hyperspectral data was acquired by hyperspectrometer (400 to 1000 nm). The characteristic wavelengths were respectively selected by Bootstrapping Soft Shrinkage (BOSS), Variable Iterative Space Shrinkage Approach (VISSA) and Model Adaptive Space Shrinkage (MASS) algorithms. Then, Support Vector Machine (SVM) was applied to establishing the relationship between the characteristic peaks, the full spectra, three characteristic spectra and the labels of tea grades. The results showed that VISSA-SVM model had the best classification performance, but the model precision can still be improved. Thus, Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) algorithm was introduced to optimize the parameters of SVM model. The accuracy and Kappa coefficient of test set of VISSA-ABC-SVM model were improved to 97.436% and 0.962, respectively. Therefore, the combination of fluorescence hyperspectra with VISSA-ABC-SVM model can accurately identify the grade of Tieguanyin tea. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The rapid and accurate nondestructive tea grade identification method contributes to the construction of the tea online grade detection system. FHSI technology can solve the shortcomings of the reported methods and improved the identification accuracy of tea grades. It can be applied to the rapid detection of tea quality by tea companies, tea market, tea farmers and other demanders.

Aggregate effects on ecosystem services from certification of tea farming in the Upper Tana River basin, Kenya

Agriculture sustainability standards and certification are increasingly used by the private sector and civil society to incentivize and support environmental conservation and improved rural. However, evidence of impact is limited by methodological challenges that hamper the quantification of certification-induced changes, especially beyond farm level. This paper aims to explore the changes to soil and nutrient regulation ecosystem services from the adoption of Rainforest Alliance tea certification in the Kenyan Upper Tana River watershed. In this study we: i) apply ecosystem service models to simulate the effect of farm-level practices for before and after-certification scenarios, and; ii) evaluate the model applications for their ability to guide future decision making. Our scenario results indicate that a widespread adoption of agricultural practices prescribed in the certification standard reduces sediment export into watercourses. However, an increase in fertilizer use by certified farmers is estimated to result in greater nitrogen and phosphorous loads. Our scenario analyses are highly sensitive to input data and model choice, but show similar relative impacts of tea certification. Opportunities to improve spatial impact measurements to support decision making can be found in the systematic accounting of land management practices by certification organizations and increased remote sensing image accessibility.

Differential transcriptomic changes in low-potassium sensitive and low-potassium tolerant tea plant (Camellia sinensis) genotypes under potassium deprivation

Potassium (K) deficiency is a common abiotic stress that can inhibit plant growth and thus reduce crop productivity. K shortages in tea farms are very severe in current tea production systems. Therefore, developing low-K tolerant tea plants is an effective approach to mitigating K deficiencies in agricultural production systems. Up to now, the mechanisms underlying the transcriptional changes of tea plants under K+ deprivation have not been studied. In this study, to elucidate the underlying mechanism of tea plant genotype tolerance to K deprivation, we investigated K deprivation-induced changes in root morphology and global transcription in two tea plant genotypes, “1511″ and “1601″, which are tolerant and sensitive to low-K conditions, respectively. The results showed that the root systems were more developed in “1511″ than “1601″. The K starvation treatment increased the proportion of roots with a 0.5–2 mm diameter in “1511″ and the proportion of those with a 0–0.5 mm diameter in “1601″. There were 487 and 294 up-regulated genes in “1511″ and “1601″ (>2-fold change), respectively. The expression levels of the most differentially expressed genes in “1511″ were higher than those in “1601″. Under K+ starvation, we detected differentially expressed genes were only up-regulated in “1511″ associated with ethylene-related, ammonium transporter, nitrate transporter, catalase-related and phosphatidylinositol-related pathways. These up-regulated genes might play crucial roles in root architecture and K+ uptake and utilization, which would help enhance the low-K tolerance of “1511″. Our study provides new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying tolerance of K+ starvation and builds a foundation for selecting low-K tolerance tea plant genotypes.

Carbon footprint and primary energy demand of organic tea in China using a life cycle assessment approach

China has the largest tea production and the highest number of tea farmers in the world. Overfertilization in traditional tea production leads to serious environmental problems. A shift toward organic production and consumption has been enhanced recently as one of the potential solutions to reduce environmental impacts. A life cycle assessment approach was used to assess carbon footprint and primary energy demand for five Chinese organic tea products in this study. Two functional units were chosen: 1 kg of dry tea for cradle to supermarket gate and 1 cup of tea for cradle to grave. Results showed that different farming managements and processing technologies exerted major effects on carbon footprints and primary energy demand of different tea products. Hotspots were identified as cultivation, processing, and packaging for cradle to supermarket gate. However, from a whole life cycle perspective tea consumption was a major hotspot. The most sensitive contributing factors, including the amount of boiling water and carbon emission factors of electricity, had great impacts on the accuracy of the final results. Scenario analysis showed a potential for emission reduction (49–65%) and energy saving (46–66%) by comprehensively using improvement strategies. This study furthermore highlighted the tradeoff between high tea quality and low carbon footprint.

DNA Quality and Quantity Analysis of Camellia sinensis Through Processing from Fresh Leaves to a Green Tea Extract.

Background: Although there has been some success using DNA barcoding to authenticate raw natural health product (NHP) botanical ingredients, there are many gaps in our understanding of DNA degradation, which may explain low PCR and sequencing success in processed NHPs. Objective: In this study, we measured multiple DNA variables after each step in the processing of a green tea extract in order to document DNA quality and quantity. Methods: We sampled plant material after each step of green tea extract processing: five steps at a Chinese tea farm (n = 10) and five at an NHP processing facility (n = 3). We hypothesized that processing treatments degrade and remove DNA from NHPs, reflected by decreasing quantities of extractable genomic DNA (gDNA), an increasing proportion of small DNA fragments in genomic extracts, and decreasing quantitative PCR (QPCR) efficiency [higher cycle threshold (Ct) values]. DNA from end-production green tea extract was sequenced in order to try to validate material as the botanical of interest. Results: We saw a 41.1% decrease in mean extractable gDNA through farm processing (P < 0.01) and a 99.7% decrease through facility processing (P < 0.05). There was a 26.3% decrease in mean DNA fragment size through farm processing (P < 0.001) and an 82.0% decrease through facility processing (P < 0.05). QPCR efficiency was reduced through processing, marked by significant increases in Ct values with 100 base pair (bp) and 200 bp PCR targets (P < 0.05), and an inability to amplify 300 bp targets when using DNA template from end-production green tea extract. Conclusions: Although there was significant degradation and removal of DNA through processing, sufficiently intact DNA was able to be recovered from highly processed green tea extract for further sequencing and identification. Highlights: This work addresses a key gap in the understanding of DNA degradation through processing and provides useful information to consider when designing molecular diagnostic techniques for NHP identification.

Livelihood Diversification of Tea Farmers In Thai Nguyen Province

This study explored household livelihoods diversity tea farmers in Thai Nguyen through case studies in Dong Hy and Dai Tu district. The results of the study were analyzed from 378 farmers surveyed with two main types of farmer cultivation: Tea professional farmers (only tea cultivation) and tea unprofessional farmers (cultivation with rice, vegetables, fruit trees, livestock and forestry). The results indicateed the degree of livelihood diversification of tea farmers using the inverse Herfindahl - Hirschman index (IHHD) that there was no significant difference in the two study sites althouth livelihoods diversity of tea professional farmers were higher than that in tea unprofessional farmers. The results of multivariate regression analysis shown that there were 5 factors that was most correlated to the level of livelihood diversification, including access to capital, number of household members, number of household laborers, level of household head education and male household head. Two factors that were negatively correlated with livelihood diversification were tea cultivated area and cultivated type of tea.

Knowledge in action: Negotiating power in development

How can sociopolitical theories inform participatory action research and what are the implications for development? I answer this question by reflecting on a research, training, and networking project that I conducted with small-scale rooibos tea farmers in postapartheid South Africa. My research team was comprised of community-based farmer leaders who sought representation in an industry marked by acute inequalities. Guided by Freire’s theory of conscientization, we employed a multi-paradigmatic framework to address questions pertaining to governance and identity. Theoretical training enabled my team to systematically interrogate differential power dynamics, illuminating the sociopolitical terrain. In return my co-investigators taught me to embrace a more situated understanding of power, helping us to shift the relations of research and practice. Yet we were unable to scale up outcomes due to material barriers, suggesting that knowledge alone is not power. Our experience illustrates the limitations of conscientization as a model for participatory development as well as its potential for delivering a multi-paradigmatic theory of social transformation.

The growth of the Japanese black tea market: how technological innovation affects the development of a new market

This paper studies the birth of the market for Japanese black tea, its decline, and its rebirth. Currently, the black tea consumed in Japan is mostly imported. But the production of Japanese black tea has gradually increased, and more than 200 tons was produced in 2016. We investigate the history of Japanese black tea, the use of manufacturing technology, and the components of tea and their effects on humans to influence quality. We found the main reasons for the revival and spread of Japanese black tea were production and manufacturing innovation. Fermentation was especially an important process because it determined tea quality. Manufacturing technology for fermentation was established by entrepreneurial farmers and transferred to other Japanese black tea farmers, resulting in the rapid market creation of the Japanese black tea.

Long term effects of deforestation on soil attributes: case study, Northern Iran

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of land use change on soil properties in six different sites of Guilan Province, Northern Iran. The study sites were deforested approximately 40 years ago and changed to tea farms. Soil samples from 0 to 30 cm depth were collected in June 2016 and analyzed for total nitrogen (N), soil organic C (OC), available phosphorus, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), exchangeable Ca, Mg, Na, K, and Al, mean weight diameter (MWD) of aggregates, water stable aggregates (WSA) and bulk density. Soil properties of two soil land uses were compared. The results showed that after land use change from natural forest to tea farms, soil physical and chemical characteristics were changed. Land use change resulted in significant decreases in organic carbon, available potassium and pH. Reduction of annual organic matter input to soil as a result of deforestation and also rapid oxidation of organic matter in deforested places were responsible for a significant decrease in OC. Soil microbial respiration (SMR) also decreased significantly, following deforestation and decreasing the organic carbon. Changes in soil exchangeable Ca, Mg and available P in two land uses were not significant. The results indicated that tea farming for 40 years did not affect soil structural indicators (BD, MWD and WSA). Also decreasing the soil pH increased soil Al, so that the exchangeable Al in forest soils was 1.16 ppm, while in tea farm soils it was 1.9 ppm. Al toxicity is an important issue in this region.

The Black Tea Industry in East Africa: History, Culture, Trends, and Opportunities

Since its introduction in the 18 th century in Malawi, black tea has become one among favorite tea in Africa especially in East Africa. Historically black tea was introduced in East Africa by colonial rulers who came to settle in this part of Africa and were much fascinated by fertile land and good weather for plantations. The Author of this article has analyzed the history, culture and new economic trends of black tea in East Africa from various online and offline sources and presented his findings and way forward. The Author thinks that the economic benefits of black tea are very high and necessitate the need to develop all processes from tea plantations, grading, packing, and export so that the maximum economic benefits can be exploited. Regarding new trends of black tea, the author proposed the black tea farmers, processors and traders from East Africa to learn from their counterparts in China. Chinese tea industry has always been considered as the most developed one. This study can help Governmental Agricultural officers, policymakers, and tea industry stakeholders and tea enthusiasts to develop the black tea industry further in East Africa. Keywords: Black tea, East Africa, Tea Culture, Wholesale tea, Chinese Tea, Tea Benefits, Tea Economy DOI : 10.7176/JESD/10-6-19 Publication date :March 31 st 2019

Measuring environmental, economic, and social sustainability index of tea farms in Rize Province, Turkey

Tea farms sustainability assessment was the primary aim of this study. A set of socially, scientifically, and self-validated indicators based on the defined basic factor and established criteria were developed and used to measure the tea farms sustainability. A total of 138 tea growers, selected by stratified sampling technique, were interviewed. Various steps were executed such as application of factor analysis after standardizing the indicators to estimate their weights for aggregation them in order to measure the composite tea farms sustainability index. The results show that average farms sustainability index was 0.39, which was not up to the mark. Although the economic sustainability (0.23) was even lower than the overall sustainability index, social (0.51) and environmental (0.43) sustainability indices were higher. Furthermore, in result of k-mean cluster analysis, farmers were clustered into low (42%) and high (58%) sustainability tea farms. The comparison of these two groups demonstrated that the high-sustainability tea farmers were hiring less labor, and also applying low chemical fertilizers at their tea orchards. Regarding farm management practices, they were also good as compared to low-sustainability tea farmers in the practice of terracing, conducting soil test, and applying fertilizer. Moreover, they were significantly different in environmental sustainability than the other group. It was concluded that the economic sustainability lowers the overall sustainability, and in order to increase tea sustainability in study area the first priority should be given to the implementation of agricultural policies focusing on economic conditions of farmers. Two initial strategies of increasing economic sustainability are controlling the chemical fertilizers and employing family members instead of hiring labor. These need to be followed by other factors that lower economic sustainability.

Bioclimatic assessments for tea cultivation in Western Nghe An

Bioclimatic assessments for tea cultivation in Western Nghe An

Influence of government regulation and community governance on tea farmers’ behavior of reducing pesticide use

Influence of government regulation and community governance on tea farmers’ behavior of reducing pesticide use

Efficiency analysis of traditional tea farms in Iran

This study aimed at analyzing technical, allocative and economic efficiency of tea farms in Fouman County of Guilan Province, Northern Iran. Data were collected through questionnaire and face-to-face interviews with 200 tea farmers in 2017. The data then were analyzed using descriptive statistics, data envelopment analysis (DEA), as well as correlation analysis. The average technical, allocative and economic efficiency, assuming constant return to scale in input-oriented model, were found to be 86, 71 and 61 percent respectively. These figures for variable return to scale were 87, 74 and 65 percent respectively. These results indicate that over 60 percent of the surveyed farms enjoyed scale efficiency. Of those socio characteristics affecting tea farmer’s efficiency: age, educational level and family size had positive and significant correlation with technical efficiency. The findings suggest that, the elderly and better educated farmers combined their previous knowledge of farming adopting proper farming practices may achieve production efficiency.

Estimating the efficiency level of different tea farming systems in Rize Province Turkey

ABSTRACT: The primary purpose of this study was to analyze the efficiency level of tea farms operated by owners and shareholders, and to explore the effect of different decisional, structural and management factors on efficiency. The data were collected from a stratified sample of 138 tea farmers operated in Rize province Turkey in 2017. The data envelopment analysis (DEA) program was used to estimate the efficiency scores. Tobit model was used to explore determinants of technical efficiency. Results disclosed that farmers can reduce their inputs use by 43% without compromising their yield level. However, they have low economic efficiency (0.41). Shareholder-operated farms were highly efficient (0.76) than the owner-operated farms. The factors such as old tea parcels, high land slope, and altitude were having a significant negative effect on farms’ efficiency. Applying fertilizer in the root zone or mixed with soil, terracing of farmland, and performing of soil test was positively and significantly contributing to efficiency. Generally, the efficiency of tea farmers is low, and mostly farm management and structure related factors were negatively affecting the farmer’s efficiency. The farmers should be aware of associated benefits with early replanting tea, fertilizer application in the root zone and terracing to control their production cost.

Impact of Seasons on Soil Physico-Chemical Properties and Tea Yields Based on Enriched Sheep Manure Used in Kericho, Kenya

Tea (Camellia sinensis (L) O. Kuntze) is a perennial crop grown for beverage consumption. Its production is the leading foreign exchange earner in Kenya contributing about 26% foreign exchange and 4% GDP. Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the recommended nutrients for tea production. However, their continuous use has been reported to have negative effect on soil physico-chemical properties and health. Sheep manure has been recommended in tea production for its soil pH buffering effect and increased tea yields. However, effects of sheep manure enriched with inorganic fertilizer on tea soils and yield have not been conclusively investigated. This study was established at KALRO—Tea Research Institute Kericho in Timbilil estate to determine the impact of seasonal variation on soil pysico-chemical properties and yields on enriched sheep manure used. Randomized complete block design (RCBD) experimental design was adopted with 14 treatments replicated thrice. The treatments were: control with no fertilizer use, NPK at 180 Kgs N/ha/yr, sheep manure only and two enriched sheep manure ratios of 4:1 and 8:1 which translates to a mixture of (4:1) 4 parts of sheep manure and 1 part of D.A.P inorganic fertilizer. Same applied to 8:1 ratio, respectively at rates of 60, 120, 180 and 240 Kgs N/ha once per year. Data were subjected to ANOVA in GenStat statistical package and means separated by Duncan’s multiple range tests at P ≤ 0.05 significance level. Results obtained showed that soil physico-chemical properties and tea yields were influenced significantly (P ≤ 0.05) by treatments applied. Soil available water and organic matter were higher on enriched sheep manure 4:1 at 240 rate used while soil porosity and bulk density were not significantly affected. Total N and P, increased with enriched sheep manure ratio of 4:1 at 240 rate while K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Mn and pH increased with sole application of sheep manure at rate 180 and enriched sheep manure 8:1 at 180 rate. Tea yields increased with enriched sheep manure 4:1 ratios at the rates of 240. The findings recommend enriched sheep manure 4:1 ratio at 240 rates to be adopted by tea farmers within Kericho region. Further studies involving different geographical locations are proposed.

Impact of agro-farming activities on microbial diversity of acidic red soils in a Camellia Oleifera Forest

ABSTRACT The production of Camellia oleifera (oil tea), typically planted in acidic red soils in southern China, is limited by low soil fertility. Agro-farming is one way to promote soil fertility by increasing organic matter and microbial communities. To understand the impact of agro-farming activity on soil fertility, three types of agro-farming, namely, raising laying hens under forest (RLH), cultivating Lolium perenne grass under forest (LPG), and maintenance of native grass (MNG), were employed in an oil tea farm with [...]

Impacts of sustainability certification on farm income: Evidence from small-scale specialty green tea farmers in Vietnam

Sustainability certification for small-scale farms has gained considerable momentum in developing countries. However, evidence on the economic benefits of certification schemes in the context of domestically consumed foods and beverages is scarce. This paper addresses this gap by evaluating the impacts of sustainability standards on the selling prices, sales, costs and net income of small-scale specialty green tea farming in Vietnam. We analyze original survey data on 401 smallholder green tea farmers and employ propensity score matching to mitigate self-selection bias. Our estimates reveal that certified green tea producers are able to obtain a higher average selling price and sales value. In addition, although certification leads to a dramatic increase in the costs of hired labor, net farm income is still significantly improved.

Impact of Conversion to Organic Tea Cultivation on Household Income in the Mountainous Areas of Northern Vietnam

This study aims at determining if organic tea farming results in higher net income than conventional tea farming in the mountainous areas of Northern Vietnam. Our sample includes 226 traditional and 319 organic tea-producing households in the provinces of Thai Nguyen, Phu Tho, Ha Giang, and Lai Chau. Using a propensity score matching approach, the study finds that the adoption of organic tea production had a positive impact on households’ farm income in the study area. Using different matching algorithms, organic tea adopters earned higher income than did non-adopters, from 1038.8 to 1059.0 thousand Vietnamese Dong (VND) per hectare of cultivation plot. To increase conversion to organic tea farming amongst smallholder farmers, the government and other stakeholders should aim to provide better extension services, which incorporate relevant training to farmers and better access to information on organic tea production, as well as encouraging the commercialization of organic fertilizers. Simultaneously, the Vietnamese government should introduce mechanisms to coordinate production activities and deliver tea products to processing and/or marketing facilities.

Influence of Geographical Area of Production on the Caffeine and Flavan-3-ol Profiles of Selected Clonal Green Tea Leaves from Smallholder Tea Farms in Kenya

Despite the use of similar cultivars in the smallholder tea sector in Kenya, resultant black tea quality varies. These variations could in part be arising from the formation of varying quantities and ratios of the black tea quality precursor compounds with agro-ecological zones of production. This study evaluated the variations in the caffeine and flavon-3-ol profiles of three cultivars (SFS 150, TRFK 31/8 and TRFK 303/577) of tea from smallholder tea farms in three agro-zones in Kenya. Overall, there were significant variations (p ≤0.05) in the levels of caffeine and flavan-3-ols due to cultivars and agro-ecological zones of production. In the same cultivar, the components varied (p ≤0.05) with an ecological area of production. The patterns in the changes were not systematically leading significant ecological zone x cultivar interactions effects in gallic acid, catechin, and epicatechin gallate. This demonstrated that it may not be predictable how the quality of clonal tea may vary when produced in different agro-ecological zone. Consequently, a high-quality clone in one agro-ecological zone may not replicate the same characteristics in the different agro-ecological zone. It is, therefore, necessary to test new clones in new environments before they are extensively exploited in these environments. The current findings suggest that flavon-3-ols may not be potential factors in the discrimination of tea quality within the ecological zones of Kenya.