Tax Convexity Research Articles

The Effect of Industrial Diversification on Firm Taxes

ABSTRACTThis study investigates whether industrial diversification generally provides a tax advantage and how the convexity of the tax system contributes to this benefit. The main findings show that multi-industry operations lower a firm’s taxes and income volatility relative to single industry operations on average, but the benefit is not universal. Namely, there is no significant tax advantage when multi-industry firms have high crossindustry cash flow correlations or when limitations are placed on the convexity mechanism, such as when firms have recent diversifying acquisitions or a high degree of crossjurisdiction activity. To shed new light on the mechanism through which U.S. firms realize this benefit, I exploit two temporary policies expected to reduce tax convexity via extensions of loss carryback periods. I find these policies also mitigate the tax advantage. Taken together, the results underscore how context matters in determining whether a firm will realize a tax advantage from multi-industry operations.JEL Classifications: D23; G11; H25; M41.

A Re-examination of Firm Size and Taxes

We document that larger firms pay substantially lower cash effective tax rates (cash ETRs) in the long-term than do smaller firms. This pattern in long-term cash ETRs is robust to various specifications, but vanishes when cash ETRs are measured over a single year. Over a ten-year period, firms in the largest decile pay 10.8 p.p. (26 percent) lower taxes than those in the smallest decile, while this gap balloons to 14.4 p.p. (35 percent) for the largest 1 percent of firms. The relation between firm size and taxes over the long run cannot be explained by foreign operations, asset tangibility, R&D spending, capital structure, net operating loss carryforwards, or releases in the valuation allowance. While profitability explains near a quarter of this effect, about 80 percent of the association between size and taxes can be explained by the magnitude of losses within the horizon period. Overall, our results suggest large firms pay fewer taxes over the long run primarily by avoiding losses, potentially mitigating the negative consequences of tax convexity.

Why Bother with Risk Management when Idiosyncratic Risk Doesn't Matter?

Firms seem to care a lot about management: the practice of hedging risks whether they are correlated with market risk or not. The standard reasons why widely held corporations might be averse to idiosyncratic risk are based on the principal-agent problem, bankruptcy costs, external finance, and tax convexity. This paper offers a different reason: idiosyncratic risk makes business decisions more difficult. Risk can increase the value of investment projects because of option value. We must distinguish, however, between risk over the expected value of profits (value risk) and risk over the volatility of cash flows (cash-flow noise). Value risk is good because an unprofitable policy can be abandoned. Cash-flow noise is bad because it makes learning when to abandon more difficult. This distinction is unrelated to Knightian risk or ambiguity aversion, and it matters even if the firm's agents are risk neutral.

Factors that Affect the Derivatives Usage of Non-Financial Listed Firms of Pakistan to Hedge Foreign Exchange Exposure

This study aims to investigate the factors that affect the derivatives usage of non-financial listed firms of Pakistan to hedge foreign exchange exposure by using data of 51 non-financial firms listed on Pakistan stock exchange from 2010-2013. The dependent variable was derivative usage which was used as dummy since no financial information was disclosed in company annual reports but the decision of usage or not. Non-parametric tests were uses which is univariate analysis to calculate the mean difference between users and non-users of derivative usage for hedging purposes. Further, logistic regression model was used to analyze the impact of financial distress costs, tax convexity, underinvestment problem, profitability, managerial holdings of the company and foreign sales on firm’s decision to whether they use FX derivatives for hedging purposes or not. The result shows that financially distressed firms, having lower managerial holdings and lower interest coverage ration with high foreign sales are using FX derivatives in Pakistan.

CAPITAL STRUCTURE AND TAX CONVEXITY WHEN THE MATURITY OF DEBT IS FINITE

We examine the impact of tax convexity on the optimal leverage, the optimal default barrier, and the credit spread. Contrary to previous papers, debt maturity in our setting is finite. We find that maturity plays a crucial role to fully capture the effect of tax convexity. Our results show that tax convexity has a substantial impact on the optimal default boundary when the maturity is intermediate. We argue that, in the presence of tax convexity, equityholders inject cash into the firm because they weigh the value surplus they achieve from delaying default against the loss they incur, given the absolute priority rule, when the firm fails to fully redeem the debt’s principal at maturity. We also find that the longer is the maturity, the stronger is the negative impact of tax convexity on the optimal leverage.

An Empirical Model of Tax Convexity and Self-Employment

Do progressive marginal income tax rates discourage self-employment? We assume risk neutrality to construct an implicit surtax on stochastic income relative to steady income, arising from a convex tax schedule. It is computed as part of a structural probit model with earnings equations and a tax simulator. The tax convexity variable and the net-of-tax income difference between self- and paid employment have the predicted signs and high levels of statistical significance for the probability of self-employment. A simulated flat tax reform suggests the tax effects are small.

The effects of tax convexity on default and investment decisions

The objective of this article is to examine how default and investment triggers change under different levels of tax asymmetry when firms face nonlinear tax schedules. Under a convex tax schedule, profits are taxed at a higher rate, while losses are taxed (or rebated) at a lower rate, thus reducing the risk shared by the government. This article presents a dynamic model based on the contingent-claims framework to explore the impacts of tax convexity on the triggers, and we find that the impacts vary significantly depending on several countervailing forces. Tax convexity has a nonmonotonic relationship with both the default and investment triggers, because of the government’s risk-sharing role. The default trigger is higher when tax convexity increases, while the growth option exerts a counteracting effect that lowers this trigger, creating an ambiguity in the investment trigger when changing the level of tax asymmetry.

English

The adaptation of free market policies in the world economy has increased the employment of risk management practices in corporation’s financial decisions in order to reduce the variability in firm’s future cash flows, due to the highly volatile exchange rates and interest rates. It is generally argued that, extensive usage of derivative instruments can minimize the firm’s cash flow unpredictability by reducing financial distress costs, underinvestment problem, tax convexity and managerial ownership. Current paper attempts to identify the factors affecting the corporation’s extent of both foreign currency and interest rate derivative instruments by Tobit model using the sample data of 105 non-financial firms listed on Karachi Stock Exchange. Aligned with the Pakistan derivative market, firm’s extent of derivative usage is found to be positively related with lower financial distress costs, higher debt, underinvestment problem and fewer managerial holdings. Key words:

Taxes, Limited Liability and Leverage

We discuss the combined effects of tax convexity, limited liability and leverage on risk-taking. First, we focus on a risk-averse investor who is indifferent to equity-finance a risky asset in a pre-tax setting. We derive the after-tax marginal prices for risk-averse investors. Symmetric taxation causes an increase in marginal prices, while convex taxation causes a decrease. The negative effects of tax convexity can be overcome by debt-financing a risky project in the case of limited liability for the debtor. We develop explicit solutions for optimal leverage and show that tax convexity is a sufficient condition for a high degree of leverage. In contrast to previous literature, we explain why increasing tax-convexity will increase leverage. Second, we solve for the coefficient of risk-aversion, making a creditor indifferent to supplying the required debt-financing contract. The results indicate that analyzing tax effects separating investment and financing decisions is not useful in case of tax convexity.

Does tax convexity matter for risk? A dynamic study of tax asymmetry and equity beta

The purpose of this study is to explore the effect of tax convexity on firms’ market risk, where tax convexity measures the progressivity of firms’ tax function. We examine the relation between equity beta and tax convexity based on a standard contingent-claims model, in which firms face nonlinear tax schedules. We verify that in the presence of default and growth options, the effect of tax convexity on beta is significant and depends on several countervailing forces. Tax convexity has a direct, positive effect on beta, as well as two indirect countereffects through default and growth options. The overall effect is ambiguous and quantitatively significant. As asymmetric tax schedules are used in most countries, assuming a linear tax schedule in the valuation framework may misestimate beta and thus fail to assess risk accurately. Our theoretical model shows that tax convexity should be taken into consideration when estimating equity beta.

Corporate derivatives and foreign exchange risk management

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to identify the factors affecting firms' decision to use foreign exchange (FX) derivative instruments by using the data of 86 non‐financial firms listed on Karachi Stock Exchange for the period 2004‐2007.Design/methodology/approachRequired data were collected from annual reports of listed firms of Karachi Stock Exchange. Non‐parametric test was used to examine the mean difference between users and non‐users operating characteristics. Logit model was applied to analyze the impact of firm's financial distress costs, underinvestment problem, tax convexity, profitability, managerial ownership and foreign exchange exposure on firms' decision to use FX derivative instruments for hedging.FindingsResults explain that firms having higher foreign sales are more likely to use FX derivative instruments to reduce exchange rate exposure. Moreover, financially distressed large‐size firms with financial constraints and fewer managerial holdings are more likely to use FX derivatives.Research limitations/implicationsIncomplete financial instrument disclosure requirements restricted researchers to using binary variable as a dependent variable instead of notional value or fair value of derivative usage.Practical implicationsThe study shows that in the presence of amateur derivative market, Pakistani corporations possessing higher agency costs of debt, agency costs of equity, and financial constraints will benefit more by defining hedging policies coherent with the firm's investment and financing policies in order to enhance firm value.Originality/valueUntil now, no earlier empirical study focused on the determinants of a firm's hedging policies in Pakistan, in the presence of volatile exchange rates,. The current study, therefore, attempts to identify the factors which affect the firm's decision to use derivative instruments for hedging FX exposure of non‐financial firms in Pakistan.

Determinants of corporate hedging policies: A case of foreign exchange and interest rate derivative usage

Derivatives are mostly used by corporations to hedge their foreign exchange or interest rate risk, especially in Asian countries due to their highly volatile political and economic situation. Current study aimed to determine the factors affecting firms hedging policies of both foreign currency and interest rate derivative instruments of 105 non-financial firms listed on Karachi Stock Exchange for the period of 2004-2008. Logit model was used to test whether the firm’s decision to use hedging instruments can increase firm value? For a detailed analysis, firm’s endogenous policies were regressed separately to identify the effect of firm’s investment and financing policies on firm’s hedging policies. The estimated results supported the financial distress hypothesis, tax convexity, underinvestment hypothesis and managerial risk aversion hypothesis. Though, inconsistent with the theory, interest coverage ratio demonstrated positive effect on firms hedging policies that may be attributed to the lag period effect.

Does Tax Convexity Matters for Risk? A Dynamic Study on Tax Asymmetry and Equity Beta

The objective of this paper is to examine the change of equity beta under different level of tax asymmetry in which firms face nonlinear tax schedules that potentially reduces their profitability. Tax convexity is an essential component in accounting practice but is usually overlooked in theoretical models. Under a convex tax schedule, profits are taxed at a higher rate while losses are taxed (rebated) at a lower rate. This paper presents a dynamic model based on the contingent claims framework to facilitate the relationship between beta and tax convexity. We verify that the overall effect of tax convexity on beta is positive and the effect would not be eliminated after incorporating other key determinants such as default option and growth option. Since asymmetric tax schedules are widely used in most countries, ignoring its change would understate the beta and fail to make accurate assessment of risk if the valuation framework simply assumes a symmetric tax schedule. The underestimation may last for a long time if analysts only adjust their estimation during significant changes of tax codes which seldom happens in a country. In conclusion, tax convexity should be taken into consideration in estimation of beta.

Effective Tax Rate Under a Convex Tax Schedule

It is well known that the typical U.S. firm faces a convex tax schedule (Graham and Smith 1999). This paper analyzes the effective tax rate (ETR) for a firm facing a convex tax schedule, and shows how the degree of convexity affects the ETR. In addition to the traditional factors (earnings level, leverage ratio), it is shown that the ETR should also be affected by firm-specific characteristics such as earnings growth rate and earnings volatility via their impact on tax convexity. Earnings growth rate should have a positive effect, and earnings volatility a negative effect, on ETR. Empirical tests with a large sample of U.S. firms provide strong support for the predictions regarding the determinants of ETR.

The Value-Relevance of Foreign Currency Derivatives Disclosures

This paper studies the value-relevance of FCD disclosures of European non-financial firms. Our findings show that these firms use FCDs to hedge and not to speculate but that the impact of hedging strategies' disclosures is statistically and economically weak revealing that either (i) managers hedge only a small proportion of the currency risk they are facing, or that (ii) investors make systematic errors when assessing the link between disclosed FCD usage and firms' risk exposures. We find strong evidence in favor of the existence of economies of scale in hedging and that European firms engage in hedging programs in response to tax convexity.

Can tax convexity be ignored in corporate financing decisions?

The standard modeling practice in corporate finance has been to assume a linear tax schedule. This paper extends the structural contingent-claim model of corporate finance to incorporate a more realistic convex tax schedule. It is shown that tax convexity raises the optimal default boundary and thus increases the likelihood of default, and also reduces the optimal leverage ratio. While the former effect seems insignificant in general, the effect of tax convexity on the optimal leverage ratio can be quantitatively significant. We conclude that tax convexity should not be ignored in corporate financing decisions, and theoretical models should use a convex tax schedule instead of a linear one. Thus, the short answer to the question in the title is “No”.

Reinsurance and corporate taxation in the United Kingdom life insurance industry

There are two main tax-related arguments regarding the use of reinsurance – the income volatility reduction and the income level enhancement arguments. The income volatility reduction argument contends that firms facing convex tax schedules have incentives to hedge in order to reduce the volatility of their annual taxable income and thereby lower expected tax liabilities [Smith, C.W., Stulz, R.M., 1985. Optimal hedging policies. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis 19, 127–140]. The income level enhancement argument, advanced by Adiel [Adiel, R., 1996. Reinsurance and the management of regulatory ratios and taxes in the property–casualty insurance industry. Journal of Accounting and Economics 22, 207–240], is more specific to hedging via reinsurance. This perspective holds that reinsurance enhances current reported earnings via the receipt of reinsurance commissions and so increases tax liabilities. Consequently, insurance firms with high marginal tax rates should use less reinsurance than those with low marginal tax rates if tax matters. Prior studies using data on financial derivatives have produced mixed results on the validity of the first argument, while Adiel (1996) finds the second argument insignificant in his study of the use of reinsurance by a sample of United States (US) property–liability insurance firms. This study tests the two tax-related arguments using 1992–2001 data for a sample of United Kingdom (UK) life insurance firms. We find that UK life insurers with low before-planning marginal tax rates tend to use more reinsurance; in contrast, tax convexity is found to have no significant impact on the purchase of reinsurance and so the volatility-reduction argument is not supported.

The Effect of Tax Convexity on Corporate Investment Decisions and Tax Burdens

AbstractThis paper examines the effect of convexity in the corporate tax schedule on corporate investment decisions and tax burdens. Using a contingent‐claims model, we show that greater tax convexity results in (i) earlier exit, (ii) delayed investment (except for small entry cost), and (iii) reduced corporate risk taking (except for small entry cost and unfavorable operating conditions). Also, the effective tax burden is an increasing function of tax convexity. The convexity of the tax schedule has a nontrivial impact on corporate investment decisions and investment levels. These results are relevant for economic growth, which depends (at least partly) on investment levels, and tax policy makers should be aware of these effects when making adjustments that might impact the convexity of the corporate tax schedule.

The Impact of Corporate Derivative Usage on Foreign Exchange Risk Eposure

This paper not only determines why individual firms use foreign currency derivative but investigates also what effects this derivatives usage has on the foreign exchange risk exposure of 471 European non-financial firms. We find strong evidence in favor of the existence of economies of scale in hedging and show that European firms engage in hedging programs in response to tax convexity. Results tend to support financial distress motives to hedge, but no evidence is found in favor of agency costs related motives. Whereas the degree of international involvement strongly determines the magnitude and significance of a firm's exchange rate exposure, it appears that large firms benefit from the diversification of their foreign operations and are to a greater extent capable of implementing operational hedging strategies. Our findings show furthermore that European firms use FCDs to hedge - and not to speculate -. The statistically weak effects these hedging strategies have on firms' currency exposures reveal, however, that European companies are hedging only a small proportion of the currency risk they are facing.

"Success Taxes," Entrepreneurial Entry, and Innovation

Interest in the role of entrepreneurial entry in innovation raises the question of the extent to which tax policy encourages or discourages entry. We find that, while the level of the marginal tax rate has a negative effect in entrepreneurial entry, the progressivity of the tax also discourages entrepreneurship, and significantly so for some groups of households. These effects are principally traceable to the upside' or success' convexity of the household tax schedule. Prospective entrants from a priori innovative industries and occupations are no less affected by the considerations we examine than other prospective entrants. In terms of destination-based industry and occupation measures of innovative entrepreneurs, we find mixed evidence on whether innovative entrepreneurs differ from the general population; the results for entrepreneurs moving to innovative industries suggest that they may be unaffected by tax convexity but the possible endogeneity of this measure of innovative entrepreneurs confounds interpreting this specification. Using education as a measure of potential for innovation, we find that tax convexity discourages entry into self-employment for people of all educational backgrounds. Overall, we find little evidence that the tax effects are focused simply on the employment changes of less skilled or less promising potential entrants.