Taurotragus Oryx Research Articles

Unveiling the roles of temporal periodicity, the spatial environment and behavioural modes in terrestrial animal movement

BackgroundAnimal movement arises from complex interactions between animals and their heterogeneous environment. To better understand the movement process, it can be divided into behavioural, temporal and spatial components. Although methods exist to address those various components, it remains challenging to integrate them in a single movement analysis.MethodsWe present an analytic workflow that integrates the behavioural, temporal and spatial components of the movement process and their interactions, which also allows for the assessment of the relative importance of those components. We construct a daily cyclic covariate to represent temporally cyclic movement patterns, such as diel variation in activity, and combine the three components in a multi-modal Hidden Markov Model framework using existing methods and R functions. We compare the trends and statistical fits of models that include or exclude any of the behavioural, spatial and temporal components, and perform variance partitioning on the model predictions that included all components to assess their relative importance to the movement process, both in isolation and in interaction.ResultsWe apply our workflow to a case study on the movements of plains zebra, blue wildebeest and eland antelope in a South African reserve. Behavioural modes impacted movement the most, followed by diel rhythms and then the spatial environment (viz. tree cover and terrain slope). Interactions between the components often explained more of the movement variation than the marginal effect of the spatial environment did on its own. Omitting components from the analysis led either to the inability to detect relationships between input and response variables, resulting in overgeneralisations when drawing conclusions about the movement process, or to detections of questionable relationships that appeared to be spurious.ConclusionsOur analytic workflow can be used to integrate the behavioural, temporal and spatial components of the movement process and quantify their relative contributions, thereby preventing incomplete or overly generic ecological interpretations. We demonstrate that understanding the drivers of animal movement, and ultimately the ecological phenomena that emerge from it, critically depends on considering the various components of the movement process, and especially the interactions between them.

Horn size is linked to Sertoli cell efficiency and sperm size homogeneity during sexual development in common eland (Taurotragus oryx).

Background: In polygynous species, the development of secondary sexual characters is usually decisive for male reproductive success. However, our understanding about the links between the growth of these traits and reproductive efficiency is still elusive. Most research efforts in this topic have been also focused on adult males, although the development of some secondary sexual characters, like bovid horns, typically starts after birth, continues during the puberty and in some species, such as the common eland, slows or even stops during adulthood. In this study, we investigated the relationships between horn size and testicular function during sexual development in common elands using a comprehensive approach that considers both spermatogenic and sperm parameters. Methods: Twenty-two non-sexually mature common elands were used for the present study. Horn size, body mass, testes mass, and gonadosomatic index were assessed. Spermatogenic activity was determined by cytological and histological analyses. Sperm concentration, morphology, morphometry, and intramale variation in sperm size were evaluated on epididymal sperm samples. Cluster analysis was performed to explore the influence of age on relationships between horn size and reproductive function. Results: We found that bigger horns are associated with increased Sertoli cell efficiency and reduced intramale variation in sperm size. Both parameters were not related to one another while they have shown to be associated with enhanced sperm quality in ungulates. Moreover, horn size was positively linked to the testis mass, sperm concentration, and testicular investment in the seminiferous epithelium. Spiral length and basal circumference were the horn traits most strongly correlated with spermatogenic and sperm parameters as well as those responsible for the sexual dimorphism in this species. Cluster analysis rendered two groups: the first one including males ≤30months old, while the second one those >30months old. Horn development and reproductive function were still correlated within age groups, with the strongest relationship found between horn size and sperm size homogeneity in males >30months old. Conclusion: Taken together, our results indicate that horn size can be regarded as a good index of male reproductive potential during sexual development and provide insights into the role of secondary sexual characters in sexual selection dynamics.

Pedobacter faecalis sp. nov., isolated from the faeces of eland, Taurotragus oryx.

Strain ELA7T, a novel Gram-negative, non-motile bacterium with a white pigment and rod-shaped morphology, was isolated from the faeces of an eland at Seoul Grand Park, a zoo in the Republic of Korea. The novel bacterial strain grew optimally in R2A medium under the following conditions: 0 % (w/v) NaCl, pH 8.0, and 34 °C. Based on phylogenetic analyses using 16S rRNA gene sequencing, strain ELA7T was found to have the closest relatedness to Pedobacter ginsengisoli Gsoil 104T (97.8 %), P. frigoris RP-3-15T (97.2 %), P. humi THG S15-2T (97.0 %), P. seoulensis THG-G12T (97.0 %), and P. foliorum LMG 31463T (96.9 %). The genome size and genomic DNA G+C content of strain ELA7T were 3.63 Mbp and 46.5 %, respectively. A whole genome-level comparison of strain ELA7T with P. ginsengisoli Gsoil 104T, P. frigoris RP-3-15T, P. africanus DSM 12126T, and P. psychroterrae RP-1-14T revealed average nucleotide identity values of 72.0, 71.8, 71.9, and 71.6 %, respectively. The major fatty acids were summed feature 3 (comprising C16 : 1 ω7c and/or C16 : 1 ω6c) and MK-7 was the predominant respiratory quinone. The major polar lipids of strain ELA7T were phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingolipid, unidentified aminolipid, unidentified phosphoglycolipid, unidentified glycolipid, and eight unidentified lipids. Considering our chemotaxonomic, genotypic, and phenotypic findings, strain ELA7T (=KACC 23137T=JCM 36003T) is identified as representing a novel species within the genus Pedobacter, for which the name Pedobacter faecalis sp. nov. is proposed.

Reproductive tract morphology and symmetry of farmed common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) bulls, and their relationship with secondary sexual traits and social rank

Common eland bulls are important game ranching animals in southern Africa, for tourism, breeding/live sales, trophy hunting, and game meat production. Interest has grown in their production potential, intensifying animal husbandry and breeding approaches. However, little scientific information is available regarding the intensive management of this species, including information regarding scientifically based selection criteria for breeding bulls. Often, simple phenotypic traits are utilised unless high-value game animals are being bred, with horn and body size often being the only traits considered for breeding bulls. This study provides basic information about the reproductive tract morphology, symmetry, and their relationships with secondary sexual traits, social rank, and temperament in common eland. Six eland males (2–2.5 years old; 203 ± 20 kg) were utilised for the study. Social rank, body weight and body condition score, temperament score, and horn size were determined before the animals were culled, and their reproductive tracts were collected for morphometric and histological evaluation. Results indicate relatively low asymmetry in bilateral reproductive tract components. Individual traits of eland bulls such as age, body weight, and social rank correlated the development of some testicular morphologies and thus may possibly be used in zoos, game ranching, and commercial production for the selection of breeding males, but not temperament and horn length, which should be carefully evaluated. Whilst this study provides baseline information from a limited sample size, further studies should incorporate the assessment of testicular hemodynamics, as well as the effects of factors such as season and androgen secretion patterns over a wider age range of common eland males and populations to provide further information for the management practices of breeding common eland bulls.

Activity and social behaviour of farmed common eland (Taurotragus oryx), and the effect of immunocastration thereon

Maintaining game animals under intensified captive conditions for production or ecotourism purposes has increased over recent years. This is especially true for the common eland, which was identified as an ideal species for captive production conditions due to its temperament and adaptability. However, little has been done to understand their social behaviour under captive conditions, especially when implementing management tools such as immunocastration, which is often used in wildlife in zoological gardens for contraception and may also aid in easing the management of eland males within mixed-sex herds in captivity, but which could potentially have adverse effects on the hierarchical rank of the immunocastrated animal, and thus welfare from a social perspective. Therefore, this study monitored the behaviour and hierarchical structure of captive common eland and the effects of immunocastrating male eland on their social rank, aggressive vs affiliative behaviours, and activity budget. Thirty common eland were divided into two groups consisting of sub-adults (n = 15; ≈ 2 years old) and juveniles (n = 15; ≈ 6 months old). Each group consisted of five intact males, five immunocastrated males, and five females. Vaccinations (Improvac®, 2 mL per dose) were administered to the males assigned to the immunocastration treatment during week 3 and again in week 7 of the study. Behavioural observations were conducted every two weeks from week 1 of the study, for five months, using all occurrence sampling for dyadic social interactions and scan sampling for activity budget behaviours. The hierarchical structure of the two groups was examined, and the rates and proportion of dominant, aggressive and affiliative interactions were established using DomiCalc. The pre-vaccination period and the control animals (not vaccinated) were used as categories of reference. Overall, immunocastration reduced aggressive behaviour in juveniles, with no effect on activity and other agonistic behaviours. However, juveniles and subadults decreased their feeding behaviour post-vaccination and were more active socially. Immunocastration can potentially be used for controlling agonistic behaviour in farmed common eland.

The utility of Global Positioning System collars in inventorying the diet of lions and its shifts following an anthrax outbreak

AbstractLions (Panthera leo) are a keystone species of many wildlife areas and, as such, understanding their dietary ecology is important for holistic wildlife management. Knowledge of lion feeding ecology enables researchers and wildlife managers to better understand predator–prey dynamics and ecological limits governing their local contexts. Where kill sites can be physically located in the field, they can provide important baseline information on lion diet. In this study, Global Positioning System (GPS) collar data were used together with field observations to investigate the dietary breadth of lions at Malilangwe Wildlife Reserve, Zimbabwe. Results showed that lions in our study had a moderately specialised diet with zebra (Equus quagga) constituting the largest proportion of prey species consumed. A massive anthrax outbreak occurred during the study, drastically reducing numbers of several prey species, and this provided an opportunity to test possible shifts in lion diet in response to changes in prey abundance. Prey species selection before the anthrax outbreak was significantly different to the period after the outbreak, indicating a shift in diet post‐outbreak. Notable increases were observed in kill rates of species that were not severely affected by anthrax, namely warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), zebra, wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) and eland (Taurotragus oryx). Quantifying lion dietary requirements is important for assessing the ecological and economic impacts they have on prey populations. In addition to space‐use ecology, this study shows that GPS collar data can facilitate diet investigation in large carnivores thereby providing useful information for ecological management.

Effects of temperament during handling and social rank on the blood biochemical parameters of common eland (Taurotragus oryx)

Large herbivores are subject to handling and social stress in captivity. These may affect blood biochemical values, which motivated this research. Twelve healthy common eland (Taurotragus oryx) were monitored for 12 months. The animals were handled monthly, and blood samples were collected. Samples from every second month were analysed for 14 blood biochemical parameters. Temperament throughout the handling, as the summation of various behavioural responses, was calculated as a proxy of the stress generated during handling. Social behaviour was recorded each month, and the agonistic interactions were used to calculate the social rank, which was considered a proxy of social stress. Generalised Linear Mixed Models were designed to test the effects of temperament and social rank on the blood biochemical parameters while keeping sex, age, body condition, and body weight as covariates. The results show that the temperament during handling influences blood levels of albumin, alkaline phosphate, blood urea nitrogen, glucose, total bilirubin, and total protein; however, social rank has little influence, affecting just albumin. The ranges observed in the values of these biochemical parameters were still within their reference intervals, implying the absence of pathology or physiological problems during the study. The results suggest that blood biochemical values of physically restrained common eland should be carefully interpreted, even in animals already habituated to routine handling. On the contrary, social rank has low effects on the blood biochemical parameters.

Consumer acceptance and quality of game meat “droëwors” sausages with different levels of added fat

Droëwors (dried sausage) is a unique dried meat product from South Africa, which is not smoked, fermented, nor is nitrite used in its production. The objective of the study was to compare the quality parameters and consumer acceptance of common eland meat droëwors with different quantities of added beef fat. Three treatments containing either 10, 15, or 20% (by weight) added beef fat were compared regarding chemical composition, fatty acid profiles, and sensory properties. Increasing the amount of fat in the dried product resulted in a significant decrease in the protein and ash percentages. The sausages with 10% added fat had the most favourable fatty acid profile in terms of nutritional value. Several differences were found in the sensory profiles of the products evaluated by the trained sensory panel; in particular, the evaluation scores for texture improved with increasing fat content. No differences were found between the products by the untrained consumer panel for appearance and taste. When the dataset was analysed according to gender, it was found that women evaluated the 10% fat samples more favourably. This is in line with their stated preference for low-fat meat products. For these reasons, the production of sausages with the lowest fat content can be recommended as they best meet consumer expectations.

Habitat Use and Diet Composition of the Common Eland (Tragelaphus oryx) in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania

Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) is renowned worldwide for its multiple land use where pastoralism and wildlife conservation co-exist. Thus, the NCA must meet a delicate balance of competing needs between livestock and wildlife. Currently the NCA is conducting resettlement program to facilitate pastoralists who are willing to move and resettle outside of the conservation area in order to reduce the number of people and livestocks in NCA. The common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) are among the large herbivore species found in the NCA that might be affected by possible competition between livestock and wildlife. The information on this species including habitat utilization and feeding ecology is limited. This study therefore, investigated the factors influencing habitat use and diet composition of the common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) in NCA. Data were collected along 82 pre-established transects using direct field survey. The study therefore assessed habitat use, distribution patterns, diet composition and conservation threats facing the common eland in NCA, The results indicated that the grassland habitat was mainly used by elands (> 85% in both dry and wet seasons), while other habitats were least used (< 15%). Eland diet composition varied significantly among plant species, with the animals most frequently feeding on Themeda triandra but rarely on Vachellia tortilis and Hibiscus aponeurus. The study concludes with recommendations for enhancement of grassland habitat management and reduced anthropogenic activities to enhance eland conservation in NCA.

Carcass and Offal Yields of Farmed Common Eland (Taurotragus oryx) Males, as Affected by Age and Immunocastration

This study investigated the effects of immunocastration and slaughter age on the carcass yield performance of intensively farmed common eland males. Eighteen male eland (five immunocastrated juveniles, three intact juveniles, five immunocastrated sub-adults, and five intact sub-adults) were finished for four months, after which their carcass, offal, primal cut, and individual muscle yields were determined. Juveniles were ~6 months of age at the start of the experiment, while sub-adults were ~1.5 years old. Primal cuts were dissected to determine the percentage yields of meat, bones (with tendons), separable fat, and trimmings. Immunocastration had no effect on offal or carcass yields. While sub-adults had increased individual muscle yields, juveniles had greater proportionate yields of primal cuts and a greater total high-value: low-value meat ratio. Whilst slaughtering younger male eland could provide additional economic advantages, this should be considered being against changing marketing trends.

Historical and current distribution and movement patterns of large herbivores in the Limpopo National Park, Mozambique

This study provides a first attempt to describe the historical distribution and movement patterns of selected large herbivore (LH) species in Limpopo National Park (LNP), an area in Mozambique today connected to a network of transboundary conservation areas. Between 1976 and the early 2000s, most LH species were absent in this area following the civil war in Mozambique followed by intense poaching due to weak law enforcement capacity. Through the reconstruction of the historical and current distribution and movement patterns of seven LH species in five periods, we investigate possible changes in distribution and movement patterns over time. Data collection is based on a systematic literature search, censuses reports, online databases, dung count transects, and camera trap surveys. We mapped all LH observations and movements using ArcGIS 10.1. Our results reveal a dramatic collapse of LH populations between the peak of the colonial period and the post-colonial/civil war period (1800–2001), followed by a slight recovery from the post-proclamation of Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park to the current period (2002–2021). While LH population decline applied to all seven species, there are species-specific differences in the process of restoration: African elephant (Loxodonta africana), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), and plains zebra (Equus quagga) appear to recover to a greater extent than giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), eland (Tragelaphus oryx), blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), and white rhino (Ceratotherium simum). We found evidence of the functioning of proposed wildlife corridors in the LNP. The results give reason to assume that restoration of populations of LH is still in a very early and vulnerable state and that further efforts are necessary to strengthen the slowly increasing populations of LH. Our results highlight the importance of combining past and current data as a guide for the restoration of threatened species in African savannas impacted by human activities.

The Saharan antelope addax (Addax nasomaculatus) as a host for Hyalomma marginatum, tick vector of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus

Tick infestation and pathogen prevalence in ticks infesting the Saharan antelope addax (Addax nasomaculatus) are factors that may constitute a risk for both human and animal health. In this study we describe season distribution of adult Hyalomma marginatum and analyzed the tick-borne pathogens and their seroprevalence in natural-living addax in Morocco. The results showed that addax is an important host species for H. marginatum adults. The seroprevalence of Bluetongue virus (BTV; 61.5–92.3%, n = 8/13-84/91), Coxiella burnetii (36.3–69.2%, n = 33/91-9/13) and Brucella spp. (0.0–4.8%, n = 0/50-2/42) was characterized in addax during various years (sampled animals per year, n = 13–91). Presence of Aigai virus (AIGV), a recent taxonomic differentiation of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) of 100% (4/4, years 2016 and 2017) together with Babesia ovis (75%, 3/4, year 2014), Anaplasma spp. (75%, 3/4, year 2014), Rickettsia spp. (50%, 2/4, year 2014) and Theileria spp. (25%, 1/4, year 2014) was observed in H. marginatum collected from the addax (4 pools of 10 adult ticks each). The results support the role of addax host in H. marginatum life cycle and exposure to AIGV and other tick-borne pathogens. The development of control interventions including anti-tick vaccines for wildlife species will contribute to the implementation of effective measures for the prevention and control of tick-borne diseases and might be relevant for the preservation of this threatened species and others such as Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) and African elk (Taurotragus oryx) that share habitat.

Zoo animal manure as an overlooked reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes and multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Animal fecal samples collected in the summer and winter from 11 herbivorous animals, including sable antelope (SA), long-tailed goral (LTG), and common eland (CE), at a public zoo were examined for the presence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Seven antibiotics, including meropenem and azithromycin, were used to isolate culturable multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains. The manures from three animals (SA, LTG, and CE) contained 104-fold higher culturable MDR bacteria, including Chryseobacterium, Sphingobacterium, and Stenotrophomonas species, while fewer MDR bacteria were isolated from manure from water buffalo, rhinoceros, and elephant against all tested antibiotics. Three MDR bacteria-rich samples along with composite samples were further analyzed using nanopore-based technology. ARGs including lnu(C), tet(Q), and mef(A) were common and often associated with transposons in all tested samples, suggesting that transposons carrying ARGs may play an important role for the dissemination of ARGs in our tested animals. Although several copies of ARGs such as aph(3')-IIc, blaL1, blaIND-3, and tet(42) were found in the sequenced genomes of the nine MDR bacteria, the numbers and types of ARGs appeared to be less than expected in zoo animal manure, suggesting that MDR bacteria in the gut of the tested animals had intrinsic resistant phenotypes in the absence of ARGs.

Stakeholders' Perceptions of the Outcomes of Translocated Eland in Nyae Nyae Conservancy, Namibia

Translocation of wildlife species from one area to another is a conservation tool that contributes to the restoration of depleted populations, augments declining populations, or establishes of new populations. This paper documents one of the first studies examining in detail stakeholders' perceptions of the factors influencing the outcomes of translocations of wildlife into a community conservation area, using the case of eland (Taurotragus oryx) translocations into the Nyae Nyae Conservancy in Namibia. The translocations took place between 2000 and 2005 as part of the national community-based natural resource management programme and were monitored through annual waterpoint counts. These data on perceptions were collected through a household survey and focused group discussions involving community members and leaders and key informant interviews with external stakeholders. Community members' perceptions could not confirm that the translocated eland decreased or increased, however, reflected that eland individuals moved away from the release site soon after translocation to more distant locations further away from human settlements. The outcomes of the translocations were perceived to be most strongly associated with anthropogenic factors compared to habitat or environmental factors. However, stakeholders exhibited divergent perceptions regarding which of the anthropogenic factors was of most importance, particularly with respect to the roles of the different types of hunting, and to a lesser degree, the role of traditional burning of landscapes on translocation outcomes. The paper illustrates the complexities associated with translocations of wildlife into community conservation areas compared to state protected areas, given the strong influence of human disturbances on translocation success. It highlights the importance of understanding the social factors influencing how and why translocated individuals may adapt well or poorly to their new environment. Building this understanding is essential to improving the outcomes of similar translocations in the future.

Serological Evidence of Antibodies to Rift Valley Fever Virus in Wild and Domestic Animals in Bauchi State, Nigeria.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is an arthropod-borne zoonotic disease responsible for severe outbreaks in livestock and humans with concomitant economic losses in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The study, therefore, investigated the seroprevalence of the Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) among wild and domestic animals. Blood samples were collected between 2013 and 2015 from 106 wild animals, 300 cattle (Bos indicus), and 200 horses (Equus caballus), respectively, in Yankari Game Reserve (YGR) and Sumu Wildlife Park (SWP) in Bauchi state, Nigeria. Harvested sera from blood were evaluated for the presence of anti-RVFV IgM/IgG antibodies. The overall seroprevalence in cattle was 11.3% (p = 0.677; 95% CI: 0.624–0.730) and in wildlife was 8.5% (p = 0.006; 95% CI: 0.00–0.60). The diversity of wildlife species sampled indicated seropositivity of 36.0% in waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymus), 25.0% in elephant (Loxodonta africana), 12.5% in eland (Taurotragus oryx), and 8.3% in wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus). Whereas, samples from zebra (Equus quagga crawshayi), kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), and hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus caama) did not show detectable antibodies to RVFV, and seroprevalence in female (15.0%) wildlife species was higher than in males (4.5%) (p = 0.061). Classification of cattle into breed and sex showed no significant difference in seropositivity. Seropositivity of 12.0% was observed in White Fulani, 12.1% in Red Bororo, and 7.8% in Sokoto Gudali breeds of cattle (p = 0.677). Whereas, seropositivity of 13.6% was observed in females and 6.4% observed in males (p = 0.068). This study indicated the presence of antibodies to RVFV among some wild animals and cattle in the absence of a reported outbreak in the study area. The circulation of RVFV in the study area may pose a significant health risk to livestock, wildlife, and humans. Therefore, surveillance for RVFV should be intensified targeting mosquito vectors and humans in Bauchi state, Nigeria.

BOVIDS: A deep learning-based software package for pose estimation to evaluate nightly behavior and its application to common elands (Tragelaphus oryx) in zoos.

Only a few studies on the nocturnal behavior of African ungulates exist so far, with mostly small sample sizes. For a comprehensive understanding of nocturnal behavior, the data basis needs to be expanded. Results obtained by observing zoo animals can provide clues for the study of wild animals and furthermore contribute to a better understanding of animal welfare and better husbandry conditions in zoos. The current contribution reduces the lack of data in two ways. First, we present a stand‐alone open‐source software package based on deep learning techniques, named Behavioral Observations by Videos and Images using Deep‐Learning Software (BOVIDS). It can be used to identify ungulates in their enclosure and to determine the three behavioral poses “Standing,” “Lying—head up,” and “Lying—head down” on 11,411 h of video material with an accuracy of 99.4%. Second, BOVIDS is used to conduct a case study on 25 common elands (Tragelaphus oryx) out of 5 EAZA zoos with a total of 822 nights, yielding the first detailed description of the nightly behavior of common elands. Our results indicate that age and sex are influencing factors on the nocturnal activity budget, the length of behavioral phases as well as the number of phases per behavioral state during the night while the keeping zoo has no significant influence. It is found that males spend more time in REM sleep posture than females while young animals spend more time in this position than adult ones. Finally, the results suggest a rhythm between the Standing and Lying phases among common elands that opens future research directions.

Response of southern African ungulate species to supplementary feeding during drought: Species‐specific differences in relative use, food choice and intraspecific behavioural interactions

AbstractIn southern Africa, climate change is increasing drought severity and duration. One way to mitigate drought‐induced food shortages is supplementary feeding, but ungulate responses are largely unstudied. Here, we analyse ~250 h of video footage from camera traps at feeding stations in South Africa during a year when rainfall was ~50% of the decadal average. Feeding station usage was highly uneven: eland (Taurotragus oryx), greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), sable (Hippotragus niger) and white rhino (Ceratotherium simum) were over‐represented relative to their local population; and impala (Aepyceros melampus), blesbok (Damaliscus dorxas phillipsi) and zebra (Equus quagga) were under‐represented. In total, 81% of individuals at feeding stations fed (0%–90% for different species). Guarding behaviour was observed, especially by eland and kudu, potentially excluding other (smaller) species. Overall, 17% visits involving ≥2 individuals involved intraspecific aggression (highest for sable (40%) and eland (27%); low/absent otherwise); there were very few (n = 6) inter‐specific encounters. Lucerne and teff hay were consumed more frequently than Boskos (pellets), which was favoured by non‐target primates and ungulates showing guarding behaviour. As benefits of feeding are unequal, and can encourage guarding and intraspecific aggression, we suggest feeding should be done with caution, especially if the aim is to benefit specific species.

Lion (Panthera leo) diet and cattle depredation on the Kuku Group Ranch Pastoralist area in southern Maasailand, Kenya

Context African lion (Panthera leo) populations are declining throughout Africa, but the problem is particularly acute in southern Kenya, where human–lion conflict is common. Aims Using the Kuku Group Ranch (KGR) in southern Kenya as a case study, we investigated lion diet and the potential drivers of temporal variation in cattle depredation. Methods Using GPS clusters, we investigated the main prey species consumed by lions to determine lion diet. Prey preference of lions in relation to prey availability was then assessed using a Jacobs index to determine whether cattle or wild prey were preferred. We used reported depredation events recorded by verification officers over 36 months (2016–2018) to investigate whether temporal variation in cattle depredation by lions was linked to variation in lag rainfall, normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) or availability of the most important large non-domestic prey items. Key results Six prey species (cattle, Bos taurus; Burchell’s zebra, Equus quagga; Coke’s hartebeest, Alcelaphus cokeii; Maasai giraffe, Giraffa tippelskirchi; blue wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus; and eland, Tragelaphus oryx) made up 92% of the biomass consumed by lions on KGR. Cattle are the most consumed prey item and contribute the second most to consumed biomass after giraffe. However, once prey availability is considered, lions preferred wild prey. Verification officers identified 330 cattle depredation events over 3 years, and we show that the most important predictor of monthly cattle depredation by lions was cumulative rainfall in the preceding 3 months. Conclusions Our results on cattle depredation by lions showed that rainfall and its influence on the environment are important drivers of cattle depredation. Understanding the mechanistic link between lion depredation and rainfall enables us to predict when depredation events may increase and allows hypotheses on the reason why this spike in depredation takes place to be explored. Implications Given that climate-change models indicate that East Africa will experience prolonged and increased seasonal rainfall, we predict that periods when cattle are vulnerable to lion depredation may increase. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure that cattle husbandry is improved during these wetter periods to minimise the risk of conflict and retaliatory killing of lions.

Detection of Lumpy Skin Disease Virus in an Asymptomatic Eland (Taurotragus oryx) in Namibia.

Nasal swabs collected from 40 wild ruminants in Namibia were analyzed by PCR for the presence of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) DNA. One sample from an asymptomatic eland (Taurotragus oryx) tested positive, providing the first evidence of the presence of LSDV DNA in an eland.

Habituation of common eland (Taurotragus oryx) to intensive routine handling, and the effect of immunocastration thereon

The temperament of captive common eland (Taurotragus oryx) during handling is crucial for their management, as they have been identified as an ideal antelope for game meat farming, and are well-represented in captive antelope populations world-wide. Generally speaking, common eland are considered undomesticated, and thus maintain their natural prey instincts, making it necessary to habituate them to routine handling. Immunocastration can be implemented as part of the herd management strategy in mixed or single-sex eland groups, and might reduce aggressive behaviour of males by blocking the production of testosterone, thereby improving docility for ease of handling. Within this study, data was collected to determine the influence of routine handling and immunocastration on the temperament of common eland during handling. Twenty-nine common eland were divided into two groups: sub-adults (n = 15; ca. 2 years old; 182.9 ± 59.37 kg) and juveniles (n = 14; ca. 6 months old; 94.18 ± 24.76 kg), and they were routinely handled every two weeks over a four-month period (10 handling events). Within each age group, females, males, and immunocastrated males were present. Immunocastration treatment was administered during the second and fourth handling events (2 mL Improvac®/ animal). During handling, animals were individually driven through the raceway and finally restrained in a squeeze chute, where routine biological samples and measurements were collected. Faecal androgen metabolite (fAM) concentrations were measured for each event, for males only. Each animal was focally sampled for specific behaviours during the handling. A temperament score was obtained by observing the general state of the animal from the point of entering the raceway, until its exit from the squeeze chute. Generalized linear mixed models tested the influence of immunocastration, week, group, fAM concentration, and body weight on the temperament score. Immunocastration did not affect the temperament score, the general state in the squeeze chute, the order of entering the handling system, and the chute exit. However, the temperament score and the state in the squeeze chute improved overtime (with animals being less nervous). Moreover, animals with low temperament scores (calmer) entered the system earlier, and exited the system calmly over the repeated handling period. The results show that routine handling through a raceway and squeeze chute system leads to habituation, and improves the ease of handling in common eland. However, immunocastration did not affect the temperament of the male common eland during handling.